Although there is considerable anecdotal information about the antibacterial activity of lavender oils, much of this has not been substantiated by scientific or clinical evidence. In this study we assessed the activity of lavender essential oils, hydrosols and aqueous and ethanolic foliage extracts from a range of Australian grown Lavandula species. The results support the anecdotal use of lavender oils as antibacterial agents and demonstrated that some oils which had previously not been investigated (e.g., Lavandula heterophylla) display good antibacterial activity against a range of bacteria including Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, Citrobacter freundii, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, VRE and Propionibacterium acnes. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the only bacterium not susceptible to any essential oil. There was considerable variability in the activity of the essential oils however; no one oil produced the highest level of antibacterial activity against all bacteria. No correlation was observed between the percentage of major chemical components and antibacterial activity. The lavender hydrosols and aqueous foliage extracts did not have any antibacterial activity. Six of the ethanolic extracts displayed activity against Pr. vulgaris but no activity against any other organism. Further work is required to determine whether these in vitro results will be realised in a clinical environment but it is clear that not all lavenders are equal in terms of their antibacterial properties.
The management of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) that occurs in 30% of all surgical cases is indispensable for a rapid recovery, patient comfort and the overall image of general anaesthesia. Currently, allopathic drugs proposed in surgery include major drugs such as morphine as well as analgesics of class IIB such as Nefopam and Tramadol. We wanted to demonstrate that it is possible to treat these negative effects of anaesthesia with a mixture of three essential oils via percutaneous application on the anterolateral aspect of the neck.
There is a strong need for new antifungal agents with a different mode of action due to the therapeutic limitations of existing drugs and the development of fungal resistances ([NIAID, The second NIAID workshop in medical mycology: molecular and immunologic approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of systemic mycoses, http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/meetings/mycology94/fungal.htm (2001)]). Mammalians, plants and fungi produce at least different cell wall sterols from common precursors. No antifungal drug is known that specifically prevents the formation of the fungal ergosterol, without affecting sterol biosynthesis at early, common stages (DiDomenico, B., Novel antifungal drugs, Curr Opin Microbiol 1999;2:509–15; Walsh TJ, Viviani MA, Arathoon E, Chiou C, Ghannoum M, Groll AH, et al., New target and delivery systems for antifungal therapy, Med Mycol 2000;38(Suppl. I):335–47). To find new inhibitors that may inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis, a query of a database on antimicrobials (Pauli, A., AmicBase 2005. Weinheim, New York: Wiley, 2005a; Pauli, A., Anticandidal low molecular compounds from higher plants with special reference to compounds from essential oils. Med Res Rev doi:10.1002/med.20050; 2005b) was performed with substructures of intermediates of ergosterol biosynthesis. As a result a series of Candida albicans-inhibiting compounds were identified that all possess the side chain of zymosterol as a substructure; their anticandidal activity was found to be increased with increase of their molecular volume. The entire structure of the Chamomile constituent α-bisabolol is found as a substructure in similar form within zymosterol. It was therefore concluded that compounds of this type interfere with ergosterol biosynthesis at the level of zymosterol and prevent the formation of fecosterol from zymosterol, which is the first fungi specific step in ergosterol biosynthesis. Due to the low toxicity of α-bisabolol (Schilcher H, Wirkungsweise und Anwendungsformen der Kamillenblüten, BMV Berliner Medizinische Verlagsanstalt GmbH, Berlin; 2004) the compound comes into question as a therapeutic agent and may serve as a lead compound in the development of new antifungal drugs.
Adsorption of the major constituents of lavender, tea tree, lemongrass and thyme thymol essential oils on hairless mouse skin was determined in an aromatic bath. Adsorption occurred in a concentration-dependent manner. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons showed the most dominant adsorption, especially in dilute solution. This was followed by the hydrophobic monoterpene hydrocarbon and ester. The relatively hydrophilic monoterpene alcohol, phenol and aldehyde constituents were poorly adsorbed. The same tendency was observed on hairy mice, mouse hairs, guinea pig hairs and human hairs. This selective adsorption of sesquiterpenes was not observed on natural rubber but observed on keratin, a major protein forming skin and hairs. When examined using the authentic compounds, the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (β-caryophyllene) and the sesquiterpenols (farnesol, nerolidol, and bisabolol) exhibited the highest adsorption, while the monoterpene limonene and linalyl acetate showed moderate adsorption, and the monoterpenic camphor, linalool, perillaldehyde, and thymol showed low adsorption. Human hairs were suggested to be an alternative to mouse skin for adsorption studies of essential oils.
Aromatherapy scents that are perceived through olfaction and transmitted to the body stimulate the brain and the lungs. They have a positive effect on many parts of the body and can improve metabolism, blood circulation, digestion and hormonal function. However, the side effects of aromatherapy have been suppressed or refuted by many inexpert aromatherapists to date. This is the reason for this statistical analysis of aromatherapy preferences and complications for 3000 otolaryngology patients.
Honey is reported to have wound healing properties. This study aimed at investigating its effect as well as those of surfactants on the antibacterial activity of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum L. (ocimum oil). The antibacterial activity of dispersions of ocimum oil (2%) in methanol, honey, a macrogol blend, nonionic and ionic emulsifiers were assessed by cup–plate method using type bacteria and wound isolates. Honey enhanced the antibacterial activity of ocimum oil to a greater extent than the macrogol blend. The activity of ocimum oil emulsion in cetrimide (cationic) was lower than obtained for cetrimide solution. Emulsion of the oil in sodium lauryl sulphate (anionic) exhibited a slightly higher activity than the solution of the surfactant alone. Although Tween® 20 (nonionic) and aqueous methanol had no activity, the emulsion of the oil in Tween® 20 showed lesser activity than the oil solution in methanol. Honey’s inherent antibacterial activity, surfactant charge interaction and the effect of emulsification were adduced to the observed differences in antibacterial activity of the ocimum oil formulations. Our findings indicated honey as a suitable base for ocimum oil especially in the treatment of infected wounds. Caution is, however, desirable in the use of surfactants with ocimum oil.
This review examines the effect of menthol on thermoreceptors, firstly from a historical viewpoint leading to the characterisation of temperature-gated transient receptor channels and then by linking this activity to specific therapeutic effects. The underlying mechanisms involved in these effects, primarily by the dermal and respiratory administration of menthol, are explored.
Public and healthcare professionals’ interest in the use of aromatherapy to ease levels of psychological distress and improve the quality of life for cancer patients is greater than ever. Aromatherapy is increasingly incorporated into clinical practice, particularly in palliative care settings, and has been reported as the most commonly used complementary therapy within the NHS. Yet questions remain regarding the safety and efficacy of essential oil use and there are concerns around the evidence available to support actual benefits. Much of the evidence is anecdotal with a distinct lack of quantitative and objective data available, due to concerns about scientific research methods for complementary therapies. This article is a review of the literature relating to the safety and efficacy of aromatherapy use for cancer care, and will highlight methodological issues and implications for research. However, the primary aim is to provide cancer patients and their carers’ access to the body of information and research available, thereby enabling patient empowerment through choice and education.
We should remember the widespread beneficial and practical uses of tea tree oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics worldwide. Tea tree oil is now under regulatory threat from the European Union. In the following article some important arguments are raised that reveal other sides to important aspects of this discussion. The results of two PhD theses, a comprehensive literature study report and a survey about the use of the oil could help to avoid a total and unwarranted prohibition of tea tree oil.
An evaluation was made of the usefulness of fragrance application in discontinuing the long-term use of hypnotic benzodiazepines in primary insomniacs with low-dose dependence. Based on the results of pentobarbital sleep time in rats, we made a new fragrance consisting primarily of sandalwood (35%), juniper berry (12%), rose (8%) and orris (6%). This mixed fragrance was found to prolong the pentobarbital sleep time in rats. A total of 42 outpatients with low-dose dependence on hypnotic benzodiazepines, all of whom met DSM-IV criteria for primary insomnia, participated in the study. In advance, all subjects attempted to reduce the doses of drugs gradually (25% reduction a week if possible) and 29 subjects who had failed to do so at all participated in the study on the application of fragrance. A mixed fragrance described above was used. A gradual tapering of hypnotic benzodiazepines (25% reduction a week if possible) was attempted while sniffing the fragrance in bed. The application of fragrance reduced the doses of hypnotic benzodiazepines in 26 of 29 subjects and 12 subjects did not require any drug for sound sleep. The present study indicated that a kind of fragrance may prove effective as an alternative to hypnotic benzodiazepines.
Many species of Thymus have been widely used in Algerian folk medicine as astringent, expectorant and cicatrising agents. This study was designed to investigate for the first time the essential oil of the aerial parts of wild growing Thymus algeriensis endemic in North Africa. The volatile oil obtained by hydrodistillation was characterized by the physico-chemical properties, GC and GC/MS techniques. The yield of the oil was 1.13% (w/w), based on dry weight. Fifty-five components, representing 94.3% of the total oil, were identified. The oil was distinguished by its high content of oxygenated monoterpenes (79.5%) and was found to possess the following major components: linalool (47.3%), thymol (29.2%) and p-cymene (6.8%). Furthermore, the oil was tested for antimicrobial activity against four bacteria, two fungi and two yeasts. This oil exhibited a significant in vitro antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis (MIC=0.5μL/mL), as well as against all yeast and all filamentous fungi tested (MIC=0.5 and 1.0μL/mL).
This paper will seek to outline the development of aromatherapy as practised in France and Britain, will discuss the question of regulation and the position of British aromatherapy vis a vis the House of Lords Report [House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology, Complementary and Alternative Medicine HL paper 123; November 2000], the effect on these of therapists moving towards the internal and intensive use of essential oils and examine the potential changes that such practices may require in terms of training and regulation.
To assess the effect of the aroma of the essential oil of Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) and the impact of induced expectancy on mood and cognition in healthy adults, 80 volunteers participated in an independent groups design study. There were four conditions: (1) aroma and arousal expectancy, (2) aroma and sedation expectancy, (3) aroma and no expectancy, and (4) no aroma controls. Expectancy effects were induced by means of a pre-test session where participants were provided with false information from a supposed official source. Pre-test mood scales were completed followed by the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) battery and a final post-test mood scale. Analysis revealed a significant effect of condition on overall quality of memory (p=0.017), long-term memory (p=0.008) and accuracy of attention (p=0.024). Analysis of the pre to post-test changes in mood revealed significant changes in alertness (p=0.002), and calmness (p=0.00004). The sedative nature of the aroma appeared to combine with induced sedative expectancy to impair cognitive performance to a greater degree than was found for aroma alone. Subjective alertness was influenced by the sedative effect of the aroma which was ameliorated to some degree by the induced arousal expectancy. Similarly, subjective calmness appeared to be influenced by both the sedative effect of the aroma and induced arousal expectancy.
Essential oils are used in skincare products for perfuming and aromatherapy purposes. In this study, the bioactivities of seven essential oils commonly used and claimed for skincare namely citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus L.), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus DC), Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC), holy basil (Ocimum sanctum L.), sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), plai (Zingiber cassumunar Roxb) and ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) were investigated. Investigation of the in vitro susceptibility of the oils against Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) using the broth microdilution technique revealed that citronella grass oil exhibited the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) at 0.005–0.3 and 0.6–1.2μl/ml, respectively. The MIC and MBC values of lemongrass oil were 0.6μl/ml and those of kaffir lime oil and holy basil oil were 5μl/ml. Antioxidant activity using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay showed that the IC50 values of holy basil oil (0.03μl/ml), plai oil (6.9μl/ml) and citronella grass oil (2μl/ml) were lower than that of ascorbic acid (7.9μl/ml). Anti-inflammatory activity of the oils determined using the 5-lipoxygenase inhibition assay found that IC50 values of holy basil oil (0.04μl/ml), kaffir lime oil (0.05μl/ml) and citronella grass oil (0.15μl/ml) were less than that of nordihydroquaretic acid (1.7μg/ml). Since P. acnes has a role in the inflammation of acne leading to scar formation, citronella grass oil may help to relieve acne blemishes. However, further investigation in the form of clinical studies would be necessary.
Microwave “Dry” Distillation or microwave accelerated distillation (MAD) is proposed as a method for “green” extraction of edible essential oils extensively used in the fragrance, flavour, and pharmaceutical industries and also in aromatherapy. It is a combination of microwave heating and dry distillation, performed at atmospheric pressure without adding any solvent or water. Isolation and concentration of volatile compounds is performed by a single stage. Rosemary was extracted with MAD at atmospheric pressure and 100°C for 30min. The extracted compounds were removed from the aqueous extract by simple decantation, determined by gas chromatography-flame ionisation (GC-FID) and identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Hydrodistillation of rosemary was performed with 2L of water for 3h for comparison of the results with those provided by the proposed method: extraction time, yields, chemical composition and quality of the essential oil, efficiency and costs of the process. Extraction of essential oils from rosemary with MAD was better in terms of energy saving, extraction time (30min versus 3h), oxygenated fraction (59% versus 46%), exact product yield (0.6% versus 0.6%) and product quality. MAD is a green technology and appears as a good alternative for the extraction of edible essential oils from aromatic plants used in aromatherapy and the food industry.
The species of Cymbopogon giganteus is widely used in traditional medicine against several diseases. This study reports the inhibitory effect produced by the chemical constituents of the essential oil from leaves of C. giganteus of Benin, in vitro on 5-lipoxygenase. We assayed the antiradical scavenging activity of the sample by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method.The essential oil of C. giganteus was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. The major constituents were: trans-p-1(7),8-menthadien-2-ol (22.3%), cis-p-1(7),8-menthadien-2-ol (19.9%), trans-p-2,8-menthadien-1-ol (14.3%), cis-p-2,8-menthadien-1-ol (10.1%).
Antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea of lavender, rosemary, peppermint, sweet basil, rose, ginger, and thyme extracts alone at different concentrations (0.04, 0.19, and 0.40mg/mL) or in combination with vanillin was investigated. Comparatively, 0.04 and 0.19mg/mL concentrations of essential oil extracts were less inhibitory than that of 0.40mg/mL concentrations. However, with rosemary extracts, high inhibitory activity was observed for all tested concentrations. On the other hand, the combination of essential oil extracts with vanillin exhibited a marked antifungal activity for B. cinerea with thyme, lavender, and peppermint extracts. These inhibitory effects are interesting in connection with the prevention of gray mold rot in many agricultural products and these antifungals could be used instead of synthetic products.
The aim of this study was to test whether aromatherapy massage has a positive effect on job-related stress. The study was a randomised controlled trial. Eighteen nurses from two psychiatric hospitals were given six aromatherapy massage treatment sessions on a once-a-week basis. Fourteen nurses from the same hospitals formed a control group. The effect of the treatment was measured by Cooper’s Job Stress Questionnaire. There was a significant decrease in reported stress in the experiment group. The result may have implications for job-related stress in the workforce and be of significant economic value.
The volatile constituents of the essential oil of Zygophyllum album L., growing in Algeria, extracted by hydro distillation have been analysed. A total of 100 volatile compounds were identified and (E)-β-damascenone (11.8%) was the major component of the oil. This is the first report on the chemical compounds of the essential oil of this species.
The antibacterial and antifungal activity of ten essential oils was tested against a range of vaginal bacterial and fungal strains isolated from existing vaginal infections including Atopobium vaginae, Gardnerella vaginalis, Bacteroides vulgatus, Streptococcus agalactiae, H2O2-producing lactobacilli and non H2O2-producing lactobacilli, Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis. Investigation of the in vitro susceptibility of the essential oils against bacteria revealed that lemongrass, tea tree and lavender exhibited the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) at 1–2.5 μl/ml, thus being the most potent essential oils against the tested bacteria. Interestingly, the MIC and MBC values of palmarosa, neroli, manuka, rose-scented geranium, rosemary, common thyme and clary sage were at ⩾7.5 μl/ml for protective H2O2-lactobacilli but lower for pathogentic bacteria. The MIC and minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC) for lemongrass, palmarosa, lavender and rose scented geranium were at 1–2.5 μl/ml. All other essential oils were less potent. Overall, lemongrass, palmarosa, lavender and rose scented geranium were the most potent oils in the inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and fungi. However, further investigations in the form of clinical studies are necessary to ascertain the therapeutic use of these essential oils in the combat of vaginal infections.
