Motor experience has been shown to enhance attentional flexibility in athletes, yet how behavioral performance and neural mechanisms develop across different levels of experience remains unclear. In the present study, attentional flexibility was examined in table tennis athletes with low, intermediate, and high levels of motor experience using a spatial stimulus-response task combined with electroencephalography (EEG). Behavioral results showed that increasing motor experience was associated with faster reaction times and higher accuracy, indicating a linear improvement in attentional flexibility. In contrast, neural measures revealed nonlinear modulation across experience levels. Specifically, amplitudes of the CNV and the N2 component exhibited experience-dependent nonlinear patterns, whereas mu rhythm activity showed no systematic association with motor experience. Together, these findings indicate that motor experience is associated with selective and nonuniform changes in behavioral performance and neural activity related to attentional flexibility, highlighting the importance of considering multiple neural indices and continuous experience levels when characterizing expertise-related cognitive development.
BACKGROUND:The use of performance-enhancing substances such as pre-workout supplements has become increasingly common in recreational fitness environments. Although behavioral interventions aim to reduce enhancement-related substance use, little is known about whether such interventions operate similarly across different psychosocial athlete profiles and which psychological mechanisms may underlie behavioral change. METHODS:Data were analyzed from a cluster-randomized prevention trial conducted in ten fitness studios in Germany, including 602 recreational fitness athletes. Cluster-adjusted logistic regression models examined intervention effects on booster use at follow-up (T3). Moderation analyses tested differential responsiveness across psychosocial athlete profiles, while mediation analyses examined changes in risk acceptance as a potential psychological pathway. RESULTS:Participants in the intervention group showed lower odds of booster use compared with the control group (OR = 0.58, 95% CI [0.33, 1.00], p = .052), corresponding to an absolute risk reduction of 6.65 percentage points. Risk acceptance decreased more strongly among motivationally ambivalent athlete profiles, whereas comparable moderation effects were not observed for booster use. These reductions were consistent with a partial mediation pathway linking the intervention to reduced booster use. CONCLUSIONS:The findings suggest that behavioral interventions in recreational fitness settings may operate differently across psychosocial athlete profiles rather than producing uniform effects. Changes in risk acceptance appear to represent a key psychological mechanism associated with intervention-related reductions in booster use, highlighting the importance of psychologically informed prevention strategies tailored to psychosocial athlete profiles in recreational fitness populations.
Groups navigating dynamic and hazardous mountain environments must continuously engage in collective decision-making. However, the assumption that groups naturally make better decisions than individuals is misleading. Groupthink, group polarization, and other social dynamics can impair judgement and lead to sub-optimal or even dangerous outcomes, making group decision-making a critical factor for safety in mountaineering. This scoping review maps the existing research on group decision-making in mountaineering using a systematic literature search complemented by reflexive thematic analysis. From 107 identified articles, we derived 14 themes, subsumed within six layers of influence, including factors benefitting group-decision making, authenticity, social influence, external pressure, expertise and contextual dynamics. Together, these themes underscore the complexity of group decision-making in the high-stakes environment. Our findings highlight its central role in mountaineering and provide useful directions for future research and practice.
BACKGROUND:Motor-cognitive training (MCT) represents a promising approach to support sport-specific performance; however, its effects in handball, remain insufficiently explored. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a 6-week MCT program on postural stability, motor-cognitive task performance, cognitive functions, and sport-specific defensive reactive agility performance in handball. METHODS:In this randomized controlled trial (RCT), forty highly trained male and female handball players were randomly allocated to either the experimental group (EG; n = 20) or the control group (CG; n = 20). The intervention lasted six weeks, during which the EG replaced part of its regular handball training with two weekly 40-min motor-cognitive training sessions, whereas the CG continued its regular handball training. Prior to and after the training motor, cognitive, motor-cognitive and sport-specific performance were assessed using the Y-Balance Test, reactive agility, motor-cognitive dual-tasking, executive function and a modified handball-specific Y-Agility test. Training effects were compared between groups using ANCOVA. RESULTS:Following training, the MCT group outperformed the control group in postural stability (p ≤ 0.041, ηp2 ≥ 0.10), RA (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.27), motor-cognitive dual-tasking (p = 0.024, ηp2 = 0.13), executive function (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.29) and in the handball-specific test (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.51). CONCLUSION:A 6-week MCT program integrated into regular handball training benefits performance across motor, cognitive and motor-cognitive domains and transfers to on-court and handball-specific defensive reactive agility in highly trained handball players. MCT provides a valuable complement to current training approaches.
Kegelaers and colleagues provide a timely critique of mental health screening in high-performance sport, highlighting concerns regarding predictive validity, feasibility, effectiveness, and potential harms. We welcome this debate and agree that screening can become problematic when used uncritically, symbolically, or without sufficient follow-up capacity. At the same time, if such critiques are interpreted as discouraging mental health screening as a practice, they may unintentionally reinforce mental health-related stigma by implying that mental ill-health is uniquely unsuitable for routine assessment, monitoring, or early support in high-performance sport. We argue that the central issue is not screening per se, but the role screening is given within athlete care systems. Screening is best understood as a structured wellbeing check-in and supportive gateway that can inform triage and facilitate clinical conversation, contextual assessment, and care, rather than diagnosis, surveillance, or stand-alone intervention. Concerns about specific instruments also need to be interpreted in relation to their intended constructs and implementation roles. For example, limitations of the Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ) as a broad triage tool need not negate its value as a measure of athlete psychological distress. Responsible implementation depends on informed consent, confidentiality, clinical governance, mental health literacy, culturally responsive communication, and clear care pathways. This reframing allows the field to take the risks of screening seriously while keeping mental health integrated within routine athlete health care.
OBJECTIVES:Yoga may provide schools with a low-cost method to promote young people's health; however, most of the evidence supporting this comes from US sources. This study explored interest holders' perceptions, including barriers, facilitators, and recommendations, regarding yoga in schools to inform UK-specific school-based yoga programmes. DESIGN:A focus group study based on UK Medical Research Council guidance to engage interest holders. METHOD:Seven focus groups (FG) were conducted with secondary school interest holders (n = 23): eight schoolteachers (n = 3 FG), eight yoga instructors (n = 2 FG), and seven school pupils aged 12-15 years (n = 2 FG). All but one of the study participants were female. Semi-structured topic guides, developed with experts in yoga and education, explored participants' views on yoga in schools. Data were analysed using Braun & Clarke's thematic analysis and mapped using the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour (COM-B) Model. RESULTS:Teachers perceived a lack of psychological ability to deliver yoga, reporting limited training and confidence. Physical barriers included unsuitable classroom spaces, school uniform requirements, time constraints, and limited funding. Social barriers included mixed perceptions of yoga among staff and school pupils, sometimes viewed as feminine or unfamiliar. Nonetheless, reflective motivation was high: participants recognised the potential benefits of yoga and supported its inclusion if designed appropriately. Recommendations included the need for tailored and responsive classroom-friendly resources and teacher training to increase confidence. CONCLUSIONS:This study highlights behavioural and contextual factors that affect the implementation of yoga in UK secondary schools. Findings will be useful for developing new school-based yoga resources.
Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a valuable framework for understanding psychosocial environments within specialized sport schools. This study examined the development of satisfaction with the needs for autonomy (i.e. volition, locus of causality and choice), competence, and relatedness, along with perceived performance, among students in specialized sports schools at the lower secondary level. A total of 239 sport school students (39.3% female, 2.9% other) reported their need satisfaction each fall and spring semester across three years. Using latent growth curve modeling, the findings revealed a complex pattern: while average levels of basic psychological need satisfaction remained relatively stable, perceived performance showed a modest decline over time. In addition, there was significant individual variability in change over time for the three basic psychological needs. Higher initial levels of need satisfaction were associated with higher initial perceived performance, and those with greater perceived performance exhibited more stability in their perceived locus of causality. Notably, perceived performance was positively linked to competence satisfaction, while its association with relatedness reflected stable between-person differences rather than developmental trends. Gender differences also emerged, as boys reported higher competence satisfaction and more positive changes in perceived locus of causality and relatedness over time. However, the trajectories of competence satisfaction and perceived performance were similar for both genders. These findings underscore the nuanced interplay between basic psychological needs and performance perceptions, highlighting the importance of individual variability and gender differences in shaping sport school student’ experiences.
The present research comprised two distinct studies. Study 1 validated the Italian version of the Physical Effort Scale (PES) among 675 participants (375 males, 297 females, 3 not reported; Mage = 24.8, SD = 8.93). A subsample of 266 participants completed the scale twice over two weeks to assess PES test-retest reliability. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the original two-factor structure (i.e., physical effort approach and avoidance), and results demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, construct validity, and test-retest reliability, thus confirming its suitability for Italian-speaking populations. Study 2 included 424 participants (211 males, 212 females, 1 not reported; Mage = 25.2, SD = 9.54) and employed a three-month longitudinal design to test two separate mediation models in which, physical and mental fatigue predicted physical activity through the intervening effects of the tendency to approach and the tendency to avoid physical effort, respectively. Different patterns emerged. Physical fatigue was associated with lower approach and higher avoidance tendencies toward physical effort, which in turn predicted physical activity, especially vigorous physical activity. Conversely, mental fatigue was not associated with these tendencies but directly predicted light and moderate physical activity. The validated Italian PES provides a reliable instrument for assessing tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort in research and applied settings. Overall, these findings suggest that physical and mental fatigue, together with such tendencies, could be important factors influencing physical activity and that targeting them may help increase population activity levels, thereby improving public health.
Background Biological motion working memory (BMWM) plays a crucial role in athletes’ dynamic information processing. Despite evidence of cognitive benefits from athletic training, the combined effects of sport type and acute stress on BMWM remain underexplored. This study investigated behavioral and neural responses during BMWM processing among open-skill athletes, closed-skill athletes, and non-specialized participants, with a focus on the moderating effects of acute stress. Methods Sixty-five healthy male participants (21 closed-skill athletes, 18 open-skill athletes, and 26 non-specialized participants) completed the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) followed by a BMWM task under both control and stress conditions. Behavioral performance (reaction time, accuracy) and event-related potential (ERP) components (P1, N2pc, N2, P3, NSW) were assessed. Results Open-skill athletes had the shortest reaction time in the BMWM task, with no significant accuracy differences between groups. Across all groups, reaction times were shorter in the acute stress condition; however, only open-skill group demonstrated higher accuracy during this phase. Together with their faster reaction times, the smaller negative-going N2pc and lower P3 amplitudes observed under the control condition were consistent with the neural efficiency hypothesis. They also showed larger negative-going NSW amplitudes, suggesting stronger maintenance of task-relevant representations. In the post-stress condition, open-skill athletes showed larger P3 amplitudes, whereas closed-skill athletes and non-specialized participants showed no comparable changes. Stress mindset analysis revealed that individuals with a positive stress mindset responded faster after stress, with athletes outperforming non-specialized participants. Conclusion These findings suggest that sport type, stress mindset, and task-specific cognitive demands may be related to biological motion working memory performance under acute stress. In the present task context, open-skill athletes showed a more adaptive pattern of post-stress behavioral and ERP responses, which may provide insight into sport-type-related differences in dynamic information processing following acute stress.
Although the past decade was characterized by methodological discussions regarding the quality of psychological research, there is sparse empirical evidence whether research practices have changed since the beginning of the debate. We aim to investigate whether sample sizes in sport and exercise psychology have increased in the past decade.We analyze four leading journals in sport and exercise psychology regarding sample sizes of all quantitative studies published in these journals between 2022 and 2023. Then we compare these sample sizes to the sample sizes published in the same journals between 2009 and 2013 (Schweizer & Furley, 2016).Our results suggest that sample sizes in sport and exercise psychology have increased for most, but not all study designs (e.g., median sample sizes increased by 44% and 33% for experimental and correlational studies, whereas they decreased by 25% for quasi-experimental studies). Although power may have increased accordingly, our results suggest that a substantial proportion of studies in sport and exercise psychology may still not have sufficient power to detect small-to-medium effects, particularly so when testing at low alpha levels. More than half of the studies in our sample do not report an a priori power analysis, and a priori power analyses are not uniformly related to sample sizes across study designs.Taken together, the present study suggests that sample sizes in sport and exercise psychology have increased in the past decade. However, there is still room for improvement. In order to remedy this shortcoming, we suggest investing in training how to perform a priori power analyses and in creating applications that make it easier to conduct respective power analyses.
Athlete burnout is a growing concern in the sport context, affecting performance, psychological well-being, and long-term engagement. While traditional research often uses a variable-centered approach, a person-centered perspective may offer deeper insight into burnout patterns and their connection to athletes' experiences. Using a person-centered approach, the present study aimed to: (a) identify athlete burnout profiles based on perceptions of physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced accomplishment, and sport devaluation, and (b) examine how these specific burnout patterns relate to athletes’ goal orientations and affective experiences. A total of 249 high-level athletes (ages 18-39 years, M = 23.7, SD = 4.1) completed online surveys assessing burnout perceptions, goal orientations (ego/task), distress, and resilience. Latent profile analysis identified three profiles: Low, Moderate and Relatively High Burnout, respectively. Results showed significant differences in task goal orientation, ego goal orientation and distress levels across profiles, but no differences in resilience. In particular, athletes with higher task goal orientation were less likely to belong to the Moderate or Relatively High Burnout profile. Higher ego goal orientation was associated with a lower likelihood of being in the Relatively High Burnout profile compared to the Moderate one. In contrast, greater distress was linked to an increased likelihood of belonging to the Moderate or Relatively High Burnout profiles. These findings suggest that athletes with lower task and ego goal orientations and higher distress symptoms might be more susceptible to higher burnout perceptions. Coaches and sport psychologists should support athletes in developing balanced goal profiles while fostering a supportive sport environment that mitigates distress.
This article investigated strength and conditioning coaches' (SCCs) perceptions of performance-related state experience in training and how these states are regulated within applied practice. Drawing upon the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) and Performance-Related Biopsychosocial States (PBS) frameworks, two studies were conducted. Study 1 examined SCCs' perceptions of optimal states for performance and associated psychosocial strategies using a 68-item online survey completed by 91 SCCs. Building on these findings, Study 2 utilised three focus groups with 10 SCCs to explore interpretations of athletes’ state experience and its influence on coaching decision-making. Across both studies, SCCs perceived successful training performances as characterised by high intensities of functional modalities and low dysfunctional states, consistent with nomothetic IZOF profiles. However, findings extended existing theory by identifying contextual sub-layers within strength and conditioning, whereby distinct training modalities within sessions were perceived to require differentiated optimal state profiles. SCCs further described athlete states as dynamic and identified patterns of change due to physical exertion, perceived success or failure, and social interaction. Regulation of state experience was embedded within the “craft” of coaching and described as intuitive, relational and context dependent. This research advances IZOF theory by contextualising performance-related states within strength and conditioning training. Further research is required to evaluate the effectiveness of psychosocial coaching strategies on performance-related states and physical outcomes to inform evidence-based professional practice.
There is substantial quantitative evidence in support of exercise as beneficial for trauma recovery, particularly in targeting the neurobiological mechanisms disrupted by trauma. It is therefore important to understand the circumstances under which individuals may avoid exercise, ultimately preventing them from accessing the wellbeing benefits. Some qualitative articles have identified the factors which may prevent an individual from choosing to engage in exercise outside of a structured intervention (self-initiated exercise), but there lacks a synthesis across these differing articles. This systematic review aimed to synthesise qualitative evidence on trauma survivors’ experience of barriers to self-initiated exercise. A systematic search of six databases was conducted to identify peer-reviewed qualitative findings on the perceived barriers to self-initiated exercise engagement, with six articles meeting the inclusion criteria. Thematic synthesis revealed three key themes: Searching for Safety, Staying With The Trauma, and Costs of Exercise and Trauma. In their decision to exercise, trauma survivors negotiate many barriers: the physiological, social, and environmental threats to their safety, trauma-related dissociation, and the costs of both exercise and trauma weighed against competing recovery needs. The small number of included studies reflects the emerging nature of research in this area, but it may limit the transferability of the findings. Nonetheless, as the first of its kind, this systematic review collates the experience of barriers as a first meaningful, exploratory step towards addressing them in future research. Taken together, the findings underscore the importance of a trauma-informed approach to ensure exercise remains unimpeded for trauma survivors.
Menstrual experiences are an often-overlooked yet influential aspect of female athletes' psychological functioning. This study examines how menstrual sensitivity relates to well-being among female athletes by investigating the mediating roles of brooding and reflective rumination and the moderating role of resilient coping. Menstrual sensitivity is conceptualized as a generalized, trait-like biopsychosocial perception of attunement and reactivity to menstrual symptoms, and well-being is operationalized using the World Health Organization framework of positive mood, vitality, and general interest in life. Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from 438 female university athletes in China and analyzed with partial least squares structural equation modeling. The results indicate that menstrual sensitivity is negatively associated with well-being and positively related to both forms of rumination. Brooding rumination emerges as the stronger maladaptive pathway linking menstrual sensitivity to reduced well-being, while reflective rumination also contributes negatively, albeit to a lesser extent. Moreover, resilient coping is associated with a weaker overall adverse relationship between menstrual sensitivity and well-being, consistent with a moderated mediation pattern. Because the design is cross-sectional and assessment was not anchored to menstrual cycle phase, findings are interpreted as associations among generalized perceptions rather than as causal or phase-specific effects. Together, the findings highlight the importance of cognitive processes and coping resources in shaping female athletes' well-being and underscore the need for more female-specific and gender-sensitive psychological models in sport contexts.
OBJECTIVES:Although physical effort is often perceived as aversive, substantial interindividual variability in effort processing has been observed, suggesting that its impact on reward valuation may vary across individuals. Here, we examined whether individual differences in physical effort valuation were associated with reward feedback processing following physical effort in a low-contingency context. METHODS:Sixty healthy young adults (Mage = 21.30 years, SD = 4.85) completed an Effort-Doors task using finger press to manipulate effort during electroencephalographic recording. Reward processing was primarily indexed by gain-loss difference scores (ΔRewP), with parent event-related potential (ERP) amplitudes to gain and loss feedback examined as complementary measures. Individual differences in physical effort valuation were assessed using the Physical Effort Scale (PES). RESULTS:In a context in which effort was assigned and reward outcomes were decoupled from effort level, prior physical effort did not significantly modulate ΔRewP, and no moderation by individual differences in physical effort valuation was observed. Exploratory parent-wave ERP analyses showed a similar pattern, although a significant interaction between feedback and effort-avoidance tendencies suggested greater gain-loss differentiation among individuals with stronger avoidance of physical effort, primarily driven by loss-related feedback responses. CONCLUSIONS:Under low perceived control, noncontingent finger exertion did not significantly modulate reward feedback processing. Although exploratory results suggest that effort-avoidance tendencies may be associated with reward-related neural responses, these findings should be interpreted cautiously within the low-contingency context of the present task.
The development of athlete leaders involves learning and acquiring the skills necessary to execute leadership tasks. The study first aimed to explore the factor structure of a questionnaire measuring athlete leadership skills. We then examined its measurement invariance and investigated the relationship between athlete leadership skills and collective efficacy across two time points. The study included 296 intercollegiate athletes. We examined the factor structure of the athlete leadership skills questionnaire, comprising cognitive, interpersonal, management, and visioning skills, using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Controlling for the non-independence of observations, the results supported the four-factor ESEM solution over a CFA solution. The results also favored a bi-factor model representation with the presence of a global leadership skills factor. Follow-ups were conducted with 224 participants. The longitudinal measurement invariance of the athlete leadership skills questionnaire was supported. We then tested a random intercept model using factor scores. The results indicated that athlete leadership skills were stable over time and demonstrated a significant positive relationship between the random intercepts of athlete leadership skills and collective efficacy. The findings suggest an inherent relationship between these two constructs. Overall, the results provided preliminary validity evidence for the athlete leadership skills questionnaire. The four leadership skills may be targeted in the development of athlete leaders, and the questionnaire can be used for their assessment. Simultaneous efforts to develop collective efficacy may also be critical.
Moral decision-making during heightened physiological stress is critical in high-pressure fields, where rapid, ethical decisions are often required. This study investigates how physiological stress affects deontological and utilitarian decision-making, based on dual-processing theory. Participants completed the Congruent and Incongruent Moral Dilemmas Survey under two conditions: seated and exercising. A counter-balanced, crossover design was used, with participants alternating between seated and cycling phases. During the exercise phase, participants completed the questionnaire at vigorous intensity and HR was monitored. Results showed utilitarian scores were significantly less likely under physiological stress. Significant order effects were found, with utilitarian scores significantly lower when the exercise condition was first. Integrating the finding that physiological stress influences moral decision-making is essential in understanding moral development and improving decision-making under pressure.
Emotion regulation is a crucial ability for athletes, given it can influence mental health. Research suggests individuals' beliefs about emotions - specifically their perceived goodness and controllability - may shape use of emotion regulation strategies, subsequently, impacting their mental health outcomes. However, little is known about whether this is the case among athletes, where the prevalence of poor mental health is concerning. Aiming to address this gap, the hypothesised model tested beliefs about emotions predicting emotion regulation strategy tendencies (cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and distraction), which in turn predicted mental health outcomes (depressive symptoms and vitality). An alternate model tested emotion regulation strategy tendencies predicting beliefs about emotions which in turn predicted mental health outcomes. 416 UK athletes (18 to 25 years; Mage = 19.44, SD = 1.32) representing a range of sports completed questionnaires measuring beliefs about emotions (goodness and controllability), emotion regulation strategy tendencies, and mental health outcomes. After assessing model fit indices, a direct relationship between beliefs about emotions and mental health outcomes was added demonstrating an improved model fit (X2 (1) = .889, p = .346, SRMR = .008, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.004, RMSEA <.001 (90% CI < .001 to .128)) and indicated that beliefs emotions were controllable and good predicted lower depressive symptoms and greater vitality directly, and indirectly through expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal (p's < .05). The alternate model showed similar fit (X2 (1) = .576, p = .448, SRMR = .009, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.016, RMSEA <.001 (90% CI < .001 to .119)), and indicated that cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression predicted mental health directly, and indirectly through goodness and controllability beliefs (p's < .05). These findings highlight the importance of the relationship between athletes' beliefs about emotions and emotion regulation and their mental health outcomes.
