This study explores language learners' stereotypical descriptions of native speakers (NSs) of German and their relationship with participants' perceptions of teachers of German. It expands motivation research that employs stereotypes to gain insight into university students' views of target language (TL) speakers (Rothe, 2022, 2025). Sixty-seven learners of German and 43 learners of other world languages (WLs) provided responses about NSs and instructors, while also rating the stereotypes' perceived accuracy. Participants held various stereotypical notions about NSs, reflecting broader societal narratives. Learners of German provided more detailed stereotypical descriptions. Both groups considered favorable stereotypes as more accurate than less favorable ones. Yet, learners of other WLs perceived unfavorable NS traits as more pronounced. Stereotypical notions traveled via two pathways of association from NSs to teachers. Regardless of NS status, teachers were partially understood as representatives of and affective gateways to the TL community. The study discussed future scholarship and implications for language programs and teacher education. Pedagogical implications underscore the need for diverse course and program materials, the development of learning outcomes related to students' social media and AI literacies, and the deconstruction of stereotypical narratives among (novice) educators.
Abstract This longitudinal study examined the mediating role of syntactic awareness in reading–writing relations among young learners of Chinese as a second language (L2). A total of 177 students from non‐Chinese‐speaking backgrounds in Hong Kong were assessed annually from Grades 4 to 6 on word‐level literacy (character reading, spelling), sentence‐level literacy (sentence reading, sentence writing), and syntactic awareness. Path analyses compared baseline and mediation models across linguistic levels. At the word level, strong bidirectional links were observed between character reading and spelling, with little contribution from syntactic awareness. At the sentence level, syntactic awareness functioned as a clear mediator: direct cross‐lagged effects between reading and writing became nonsignificant, while indirect effects through syntactic awareness were significant. Across time, syntactic awareness showed a stable developmental trajectory but was also shaped by both reading and writing, with sentence writing exerting sustained influence. Findings highlight syntactic awareness as a shared knowledge base and underscore the value of integrating syntax‐focused support in L2 literacy instruction.
Abstract Heritage language learners (HLL) and second language learners (L2L) of Spanish often study the target language together in mixed classrooms, where they may interact in pair activities and adopt different positions according to their background knowledge and abilities. Through qualitative discourse analysis of three interactions between one HLL‐L2L dyad in a university‐level Spanish class, this study considers how classroom activities allow or restrict access to an expert position for both students and how the HLL is positioned in on‐task and off‐task discourse. Findings reveal that the L2L is more likely to adopt the expert position throughout their interactions, especially during activities requiring metalinguistic knowledge. This study sheds light on issues with activity design, HLL–L2L interactions, and HLL support in mixed classrooms. It concludes with pedagogical implications and recommendations for instructional approaches that empower HLLs to position themselves as experts in their learning, including task‐based language teaching and critical language awareness.
Abstract Generative AI is increasingly used in L2 writing, yet little is known about its use by beginners and learners of languages other than English. This study examined how four beginner learners of Japanese engaged affectively, cognitively, and behaviorally with ChatGPT feedback while writing. Data were collected through interviews, stimulated recalls, screen recordings, and reflective journals. The data analysis also included error types, prompt types, and the accuracy of ChatGPT output. Affectively, participants valued English translations but reported negative emotions due to inconsistent, self‐contradictory explanations, low trust, and feedback beyond their proficiency. Cognitively, orthographic accessibility reduced attention to feedback, though learners still evaluated suggestions critically. Behaviorally, participants frequently verified ChatGPT output with external resources and used ChatGPT mainly for proofreading and word lookup. Findings highlight how proficiency and orthography shape engagement with AI feedback. This study underscores the importance of teaching AI‐use strategies to elicit level‐appropriate feedback for beginner learners.
This study explored the relationship between foreign language anxiety (FLA), oral proficiency, and other individual differences among 58 students in an intensive Chinese language program in the United States. The individual differences tested in this research include overseas experiences, academic year, and self-efficacy. Participants were administered self-reported questionnaires and completed an oral proficiency interview. We analyzed the data using Bayesian mediation analysis. Our results indicate that higher levels of anxiety were associated with lower levels of ACTFL OPI scores. Furthermore, FLA partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and student oral proficiency levels, as well as between overseas experience and oral proficiency, but not between academic year and oral proficiency. These findings highlight the significant impact of FLA on language learning and provide insights for pedagogical strategies aimed at managing anxiety and enhancing oral proficiency in intensive language programs.
In this conceptual article, I present the Healing Justice Practice (HJP) Professional Development (PD) Program as a restorative model designed for Black K-12 World Language (WL) educators working within predominantly White institutions (PWIs). Rooted in Afrocentric pedagogy and Healing Justice frameworks, this work addresses the racialized linguistic trauma, emotional labor, and professional isolation that Black WL educators experience in U.S. schools. The article situates Black WL educators' underrepresentation, only 4% nationally, within historical patterns of systemic exclusion and loss of communal networks following desegregation. The proposed HJP PD program integrates Healing Justice principles (Brown et al., 2014) with Spelman College's African Diaspora and the World (ADW) curriculum to restore community, affirm Black linguistic and cultural identities, and reimagine WL education as a site for reparative transformation. The program framework centers three core themes, Identity, Co-construction, and Resistance, while unfolding across five sessions that guide participants through self-reflexive storytelling, trauma-informed dialogue, and Afrocentric curricular design. Participants engage in readings, reflective journaling, and collaborative inquiry aimed at reclaiming narrative authority, cultivating professional identity, and translating healing into liberatory teaching practice. The article illustrates how HJP PD serves as both personal restoration and institutional intervention, and calls on PWIs and school systems to recognize such programs as accredited professional development spaces that counteract anti Black linguistic racism while fostering retention, leadership, and curriculum transformation among Black WL educators.
Despite growing interest in task engagement, few studies have examined how it contributes to L2 development. This longitudinal study examined how task engagement related to gains in L2 Japanese comprehensibility among nine UK-based university students participating in a semester-long, video-mediated eTandem exchange with Japanese partners. Using 17 engagement indicators, we first provided a descriptive overview of associations between engagement and development. The strongest association was observed for Japanese partners' use of cultural questions. Guided by these results, we then employed interactional sociolinguistics concepts to understand how cultural questions facilitated comprehensibility development. The discourse analysis revealed that cultural questions shifted interactional frames and footings (Goffman, 1974, 1981), prompting L2 learners to take extended turns and practice making their speech comprehensible. The findings highlight the value of qualitative perspectives in task engagement research, showing that L2 comprehensibility development emerges not only from learners' own engagement but also through their partners' interactive behaviors.
Critical pedagogical approaches such as critical literacies represent important tools for incorporating diversity, equity, inclusion, and social justice into L2 teaching, an objective that is more important now than ever before. However, research has shown that implementing such practices is difficult-even for instructors who value them-due to numerous practical and sociocultural obstacles. This study thus adopted an innovatively quantitative approach to a primarily qualitative field to explore (1) the extent to which N = 136 students enrolled in first-fifth semester L2 French at a large, public U.S. university reported prioritizing critical literacies-based instruction in L2 learning and (2) how much experience they reported having with such teaching in their current French classes. Results from a survey developed and validated around Lewison et al.'s (2002) four dimensions of critical literacies instruction indicated that participants generally reported prioritizing critical literacies in their language learning but disagreed that it was routinely implemented in their courses. A statistically significant association and difference between participants' reported prioritization and experience additionally corroborated this finding. The implications of these results for L2 teaching and research are discussed, and suggestions are offered for incorporating critical literacies into novice and intermediate-level language teaching.
The limited presence of Black world language teachers (BWLTs) has been attributed to a lack of interest, ability, or access. In navigating societal forces that perpetuate anti-Black stereotypes, BWLTs challenge these and similar narratives (e.g., the belief that they cannot be both Black and command the target language). We qualitatively analyze interviews with nine BWLTs, exploring how their identities and teaching practices mutually inform one another, highlighting processes of redefining Blackness and the target languages across ethnoracial and linguistic boundaries. Findings reveal that BWLTs contest racial and linguistic power dynamics by drawing on Black cultural experiences impacted by racialization. Across various U.S. regions, levels of instruction, and communities, we propose an intralocutory method coarticulating our evolving understandings of self and Black languaging possibilities. We discuss the value of representational pedagogies, curricular autonomy, and engaging culture in language study as flexible and inextricable from broader racializing forces and contexts.
This study investigated the integration of a rule-based AI chatbot into A1-level French instruction to support vocabulary learning. Quantitative findings showed that the experimental group achieved significantly higher posttest scores than the control group, with a large effect size (r = 0.83, p < .001). Survey results indicated generally positive attitudes toward using the chatbot as a mobile learning tool, particularly in satisfaction and perceived usability. Focus group data reinforced these findings, highlighting accessibility, motivational value, and support for personalized, self-paced learning. Reported challenges included occasional technical issues and the absence of voice-based interaction. The findings suggest that pedagogically aligned, rule-based chatbots can support vocabulary acquisition and learner engagement. In pedagogical terms, brief, guided chatbot interactions may extend weekly instruction by providing individualized retrieval practice with immediate feedback in a low-anxiety environment, while visual cues can further support recognition and recall.
As the global population of Chinese-as-a-foreign-language learners grows, the complexity of characters remains a major barrier and a frequent cause of attrition. This study compared handwriting and typing instruction in character learning through an experiment with 28 Burmese beginners randomly assigned to handwriting or typing groups (n = 14 each) who received 40 h of instruction. The results showed that the typing group outperformed the handwriting group in character recognition and dictation, indicating that typing promotes orthography-sound mapping and input efficiency. In contrast, the handwriting group scored higher in meaning recognition, suggesting that handwriting strengthens orthography-meaning associations and supports deeper processing. No significant group differences emerged in meaning-based output. Pedagogically, instructors can combine typing to support early form and sound learning, with targeted handwriting to strengthen form and meaning learning, which may ease the initial learning burden.
There is little published research on school-aged learners of Mandarin Chinese in anglophone contexts. This article explores English secondary school pupils' motivation for learning Chinese compared to European languages. The research questions were: (1) What is the strength and nature of pupils' self-reported motivation for learning languages? (2) How does pupils' motivation for learning Chinese compare with their motivation for learning European languages? Focus groups were conducted with 43 pupils (aged 11-12) in their first year at five state-funded secondary schools. In all languages, culture and a desire to connect with speakers were strong motivators; classroom experiences were also key, underlining teachers' central role. Motivation for Chinese was frequently linked to novelty, difference, challenge, and enjoyment of the character-based writing system. The article highlights practical classroom implications, particularly the need for teachers to consider the motivational impact of pedagogical decisions relating to curriculum content, task design, and classroom organization.
This qualitative case study used history-in-person (Holland & Lave, 2001, 2009) as a theoretical lens to investigate the identities and instructional practices of two U.S. postsecondary German teachers. The participants had similar professional backgrounds, worked in the same language program, and adopted innovative pedagogies to create and implement a social justice curricular unit over a 2-year period. Findings showed that although the participants grappled with the same institutional struggles, their personal histories, beliefs, and experiences manifested differently in their instructional practices. Moreover, aspects of participants' language teacher identity became more salient over time and motivated them to adjust their newly adopted pedagogical practices. Findings point to the challenges of adopting innovative practices, particularly for experienced teachers, and to the importance of reflective teaching and focused professional development for empowering teachers as they integrate social justice content and pedagogies into language curricula.
Reliable rating of large‐scale writing tests is a challenging venture. Preparing, calibrating, and providing quality assurance for effective and efficient raters is critical to the operation of these tests (Hughes, 2003). To address this challenge, testing organizations have employed different approaches to automated scoring using artificial intelligence (AI). Claims about automated scoring of such large‐scale writing tests suggest that they are as or more reliable than human raters. However, there is limited research on the implementation of automated scoring for tests of writing in languages other than English. This paper describes research on the development and evaluation of an automated scoring system for a large‐scale Spanish language writing test for middle and high school students. The model, consistent with the philosophy behind the test development and scoring system, focuses primarily on the features examinees can do and produce rather than a subtractive model that places more focus on examinees' mistakes. The system was trained on completed operational responses and with ratings from certified human raters. Natural Language Processing techniques were used to identify specific linguistic features. Results show equal or better agreement between machine–human scores than between two human raters.
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into second language (L2) writing instruction has generated an ongoing debate concerning its pedagogical value, ethical implications, and classroom implementation. While existing research highlights AI's potential to enhance writing development, teachers' subjective views remain underexplored. This study uses Q‐methodology to examine educators' perspectives on the pedagogical role of AI, particularly AI‐generated feedback, in L2 writing instruction. Forty teachers sorted 42 statements that captured pedagogical, emotional, and ethical concerns related to AI‐supported writing practices. By‐person factor analysis revealed four distinct viewpoints: (1) Instructor‐Led Guided Trust , (2) Institution‐Dependent Conditional Trust , (3) Strategic Resistance , and (4) Transformative Embrace . These perspectives reflect varying degrees of trust in AI, informed by beliefs about instructional quality and teacher roles. The findings emphasize the need for teacher agency, contextual responsiveness, and targeted professional development in AI adoption. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of how educators reconcile emerging technologies with pedagogical integrity, offering practical implications for policy, training, and future research in technology‐enhanced education.
This study investigates the factors influencing Persian language learning among heritage language learners in Sydney, Australia, with a particular focus on how formal and informal settings shape language choice and availability. The research employs a qualitative case study approach, incorporating data from student focus groups, semi-structured interviews with parents and teachers, and classroom observations at four Persian community language schools. Key findings highlight the role of social interaction, language proficiency, and bilingualism in shaping heritage language (HL) learners' language choices. The study proposes a model that explains the interrelationship between language proficiency, interlocutor, and tendency. The findings have pedagogical implications, suggesting strategies for bilingual immersion, digital learning integration, and parental engagement to support HL development. Future research could explore Persian HL learners in diverse contexts and investigate the impact of digital media on HL learning.
