Background: To analyze the inequality and change trends in height of children and adolescents aged 718 years in different regions of China from 1985 to 2019. Methods: Data were extracted for the height of Chinese children and adolescents aged 718 years from eight Chinese National Surveys on Students Constitution and Health (CNSSCH) from 1985 to 2019. We calculated the urbanrural difference in height of children and adolescents and the height coefficient of variation of urban and rural children and adolescents each year. Results: We found that there are large differences in the height of children and adolescents between urban and rural areas, the eastern regions and western regions, Shanghai and Guizhou. From 1985 to 2019, the urbanrural difference in height for boys decreased from 4.24 cm to 1.76 cm and for girls from 3.72 cm to 1.45 cm and the urbanrural difference in height for boys and girls in the western regions was larger. From 1985 to 2019, there were also large height differences between the eastern regions and western regions, Shanghai and Guizhou, which were comparisons of the height differences between developed and undeveloped areas of China. Meanwhile, height inequalities were more serious in rural areas. Whether in the eastern regions and western regions, Shanghai and Guizhou, the height differences between peers were larger in rural areas than in urban areas. Conclusions: There were obvious height inequalities in China. Although the urbanrural differences have decreased, the height differences among regions at different economic levels have gradually increased, especially in rural areas. These differences should be taken seriously and relevant policies should be formulated to reduce height inequalities for children and adolescents in different regions.
In Kampehl, a village northwest of Berlin, a mummified body is preserved and exhibited in a church annexe. It is said to represent the remains of Christian Friedrich von Kahlbutz (1651-1702), a local nobleman. According to local legend, he swore before a court that his body would not decay if he were the culprit in an alleged case of murder. We offer the first comprehensive investigation of the mummy using anthropological and historical methods. A CT scan of the mummy revealed an intact skeleton without signs of injury or major disease, minimal remnants of inner organs, a pencil inside the thoracic cavity, likely introduced as a hoax, and a coin-shaped metallic object inside the oral cavity. Sex and age of the body match the historical individual, as does radiocarbon dating. Results of palaeogenetic investigations are limited due to poor endogenous DNA quality. Historical research could establish the place of birth of Christian Friedrich von Kahlbutz as likely being near Lüneburg, i.e., outside Brandenburg. He had military training before living the life of a feudal lord in Kampehl, where he married and had twelve children. Even without a name on the coffin, the identification of the mummy with this historical individual seems plausible. There is only indirect evidence for a historical trial for murder against him. All findings speak for natural mummification, which is not unheard of in the region, as is the placing of a coin into the mouth of a deceased individual as burial object.
Lead is one of the most toxic heavy metals and environmental pollutants on earth capable of adversely affecting every organ in the human body, with harmful short- and long-term effects. In the Laurion region of southeastern Attica, Greece, the extraction of silver-rich lead ores has been practiced since prehistoric times. This area was heavily mined during the late Archaic and Classical periods significantly contributing to Athens wealth and sovereignty. Mining and metallurgical activities declined towards late antiquity but resumed in the late 19th century, continuing until the end of the 20th century. Vestiges of these activities still dot the landscape posing potential environmental risks. Although the chemical effects of lead on the human skeleton are well-documented, the osteological imprint of lead contamination, especially in classical antiquity, remains unexplored. This paper examines lesions characteristic of lead poisoning found on the remains of a 2-year-old infant from Laurion dating to the Archaic/Early Classical period (6th5th century BCE). The study employs non-invasive techniques, including macroscopic analysis, digital microscopy, plain radiography, and micro-CT imaging, to assess the presentation, distribution, pathogenesis, and etiology of the lesions. Anatomical areas formed by endochondral ossification, including the metaphyses of the long bones, the sternal ends of mid-ribs, and the condyle(s) of the mandible, are affected by bone hypertrophy and the formation of lead lines or lead bands. Additionally, hyperplasia of the cranial vault is diagnostic of anemia, while lesions on the endocranial surface indicate encephalopathy, which is associated with high levels of lead exposure and is often fatal. The presence of lesions diagnostic of scurvy and those consistent with rickets further supports the co-occurrence of multiple metabolic diseases in the infant skeleton. The manifestation of these lesions can provide insights into the history of lead toxicity and its lasting effects.
The purpose of our study was to examine the eye parameters in relation to body size, proportions and composition in healthy or age-related macular degeneration affected adults, considering maternal diet during pregnancy. Statistically significant smaller corneal radius was found in maternal undernutrition groups comparing with maternal normal nutrition groups (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in retinal parameters or vision (p > 0.05). Statistically significant smaller distal width of humerus and Frame index in both genders, shorter humerus, radius, femur and tibia length in males, lower height, sitting height and shorter fourth finger length in females was found in age-related macular degeneration maternal undernutrition group compared to healthy retina normal nutrition group (p < 0.05). Our study revealed that participants with higher stature, longer limbs, more robust skeleton and higher accumulation of fat on trunk as well as with higher absolute active mass had statistically significant lower chance to suffer from age-related macular degeneration (OR < 1.0; p < 0.05). Subjects which suffered from maternal undernutrition had steeper central corneal radius, but no clear changes in the retinal thickness, which determines maintenance of good visual acuity. Developmental programming theory was supported by anthropometric peculiarities of individuals with age-related macular degeneration in the maternal undernutrition group subjects had smaller distal width of humerus and Frame index, males had shorter humerus, radius, femur and tibia and women had shorter fourth fingers. Taller subjects with longer limbs, higher Frame index, more abundant fat accumulation on trunk, higher absolute active mass had lower chance to suffer from age-related macular degeneration.
Background: Dental profiling is the process of analyzing teeth to identify a victim or skeletal remains when no antemortem data are available. Using dental profiling techniques, we can determine the age, sex, and population of the individual and gather data about their socio-economic status, personal habits, oral and systemic health, occupation, nutri-tion, family relationships, and psychological characteristics. Aims: The research aims to gain insights into the diet, health, socio-economic status, and demography of the Late Iron Age inhabitants of Illyrian origin who lived on the Croatian island of Kor & ccaron;ula. This will be achieved by analyzing the remains of teeth and jaw bones found in the Kopila necropolis. Material and methods: The research sample comprised 479 permanent teeth and jawbone remains from three tombs that belong to the collection of the Vela Luka Culture Centre on the island of Kor & ccaron;ula. The analysis of the teeth included an examination of their morphological and pathological characteristics as well as metric and non-metric variables. Additionally, the stable isotopes of carbon (14C, 13C), nitrogen (15N), and strontium (86/87Sr) were chemically analyzed. Odontometry was used as a metric variable and the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASUDAS) was used as a non-metric variable to determine sex. Results: The research findings indicate that healthy teeth are present with a frequency of dental caries of 5.85% and tooth wear of 85.18%. There is morphological atypicality in the number of roots of the upper premolars and taurodontism in the molars. Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen show values of delta 13C = -19.5 parts per thousand (+/- 0.1 parts per thousand) and delta 15N = 8.6 parts per thousand (+/- 0.1 parts per thousand). The ratio 13C/15N is 3.4. The values of 87Sr/86Sr in the dental enamel are 0.708400-0.708433, whereas in bones they are 0.708149-0.708471 (+/- 1 sigma 0.000016-0.000034). Conclusions: The Illyrian community on the island of Kor & ccaron;ula relied primarily on agriculture for their food, consuming only cereals, vegetables, and meat from domesticated ani-mals. They did not extensively use marine resources. They were in good health generally. The individuals examined were native residents of the island and can be associated through their dental morphology with the Western Eurasian population group. The average lifespan of the population corresponds to the typical life expectancy during the Late Iron Age.
Somatotype and body composition (BC) are related to athletes' physical fitness and performance. The aims of this study were (a) to determine the somatotype and BC profiles of children and adolescent male basketball players and (b) to investigate the relationship between somatotype and BC. Four hundred forty-nine children and adolescent male basketball players between the ages of 7-17 participated in the study voluntarily. Somatotype scores were determined according to the Heath & Carter method, and BC was evaluated by the bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) method. Pearson correlation test was used to determine the relationship between somatotype and BC. A significant positive relationship between body mass (BM), body fat (BF), body mass index (BMI), and fat mass (FM) with endomorphy and mesomorphy scores; a significant negative relationship between body height (BH) with endomorphy and mesomorphy scores were found. In addition, ectomorphy scores were significantly positively correlated with BH and negative with other parameters. This current research shows that as age increases, BH, BM, BMI, and FM increase, and BF, endomorphy, and mesomorphy scores decrease. With increasing age, the somatotype score changes from endomorphic mesomorphy (5-7-2) to balanced mesomorphy (3-6-3). The comprehensive data presented in this study can serve as a reference value and be used as an indicator for children and adolescent basketball coaches.
A sedentary lifestyle, characterised by a lack of physical activity, negatively influences Body Mass Index (BMI). BMI may be related to the prevalence of flat feet. This study aims to observe the occurrence of flat feet in young children and determine its association with BMI. Additionally, it aims to analyse foot loading in the forefoot, midfoot and rearfoot. Dynamographic records of children (N = 142; age = 10.3 ± 0.21 years) were collected during walking, and foot-type evaluations were conducted using a force plate. A normal foot type was observed in 44% of children (BMI 16.0 ± 2.3 kg/m2). Flat feet were observed in 54% of children (BMI 18.4 ± 4.3 kg/m2). A high foot arch was observed in only 2% of children (BMI 16.0 ± 1.3 kg/m2). Children with flat feet had higher BMI values than those with normal feet. The contact time and maximal vertical force in the forefoot and rearfoot were similar in children with normal and flat feet. Significantly higher pressure values were observed in the midfoot zone of children with flat feet. Regression analysis results showed that in children with flat feet, there is a decrease in forefoot loading and an increase in midfoot loading with increasing BMI. This trend was not observed in children with normal feet. We recommend incorporating exercise interventions at this age to prevent pain and promote willingness to engage in physical activity. Higher BMI values indicate an increased risk for the prevalence of flat feet.
As modern populations are living longer, age-related health issues have become more common. One growing concern is the age-related bone density loss that increases the individual's risk for fractures, which unfortunately seems to disproportionately afflict women. These fractures are not only detrimental to the individuals' lives but also come with a great economic burden to the societies. Although age-related bone loss is a normal phenomenon, studies on archaeological individuals have demonstrated that the pattern how this occurs has experienced changes due to our changing lifestyles. Hence, to add to our understanding of secular trends in age-related bone loss, we studied age- and sex-related differences in vertebral and femoral bone densities of a recent past population of late 19th and early 20th century Americans. We used a sample of 114 individuals (55 males, 59 females) from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Skeletal Collection. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) was used to scan the dry bones. We took one scan from the 4th lumbar vertebra and three scans from the femur. The associations between the age, sex and bone density were analyzed. We were able to detect age-related bone loss in both vertebra and femur. It was observed that men tended to lose more bone density on the vertebra, whereas bone loss in women was more pronounced in the femur. We speculate that differences to modern and earlier archaeological populations are related to the major lifestyle differences between the periods.
With the implementation of the three-child policy in China, the debate between fertility and health and longevity has again become a hot topic in the era of increasing ageing. This study aimed to explore the association between reproductive behaviour and longevity of older women and men in China. Based on data from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) from 2014 to 2018, a total of 1428 deceased older people were enrolled in the study, including 421 centenarians and 1007 non-centenarians. The analysis of the association between fertility and longevity was conducted in the multivariate logistic regression. Compared to women aged 99 years and below, centenarian women had significantly fewer children (p < 0.01), fewer sons (p < 0.01) and fewer daughters. Centenarian men had more children, more daughters and fewer sons. For both men and women, centenarians were significantly characterized by later age at first birth (p < 0.01) and later age at last birth (p < 0.01). Centenarians were significantly characterized by having children and having a daughter, however, non-centenarians were significantly characterized by having a son (p < 0.01). The association between fertility and health of both men and women should be taken into account in the development of fertility policies and supporting policies. Fertility levels should be increased without compromising the health benefits of individuals in their later years.
In 1996, Grün and coworkers provided an ESR age determination for a hominin molar from Florisbad, South Africa, at 259 ± 35 ka. The most anatomically informative hominin specimen from Florisbad is a fragmentary craniofacial specimen, attributed by many to early Homo sapiens, which has been assumed to derive from the same individual as this tooth. Since 1996, evidence about the evolutionary context for the later Middle Pleistocene and its associated hominins in Africa had markedly changed. If the Florisbad date is accurate and if the molar is associated with the craniofacial specimen, this evidence may suggest that Homo naledi coexisted in time and geography with H. sapiens in southern Africa. Thus, the accuracy for all dates needs critical investigation. This study examines the published record of excavation and subsequent analyses for the Florisbad material. We find that the contemporary records raise doubt about the contemporaneity of the tooth and calvaria. The site's complex stratigraphy and the details about the tooth's discovery also pose challenges for the previous ESR age estimate. Because the fragmentary cranial specimen has value for morphological comparisons, developing additional means of understanding its geological age is necessary. The current data do not demonstrate the presence of H. sapiens in southern Africa at ~260 ka.
Discussions of the evolution of sexual dimorphism in torso shape and the pectoral region assume that this dimorphism exists independently of body size. We test this assumption in two human populations and further examine what is needed to understand sexual dimorphism in the pectoral region. Modern human males have broad shoulders and narrow hips relative to females, lending males a more triangular torso. The wider female pelvis is commonly attributed to obstetric pressures while the broader male pectoral girdle has been argued to be an adaptation that improves hunting or intrasexual competition. While sexual dimorphism in the pelvic girdle is known to exist after adjusting for body size across human populations, most studies of sexual dimorphism in the pectoral girdle have not adjusted the data to account for sexual size dimorphism or compared different ancestral groups. The aforementioned hypotheses explaining sexual dimorphism in the clavicle and scapula as products of natural selection are predicated on the untested assumption that sex differences do not scale with body size. This study tests this assumption by comparing various measurements of the pectoral girdle, the pelvic girdle, and six pectoral-pelvic indices of black and white South Africans of known sex and height to test whether the sexes and ancestral groups will differ in these values after adjusting for differences in body size. Comparisons of ancestral groups reveal that white South Africans have larger pectoral and pelvic dimensions than black South Africans, but that blacks have larger index values than whites. Regardless of differences in ancestry and body size, males have significantly broader pectoral regions as indicated by comparisons of both individual pectoral measurements and pectoral-pelvic indices. This pattern of sexual dimorphism is reversed in the pelvic region where females have larger skeletal elements. In addition to finding both absolute and relative differences in mean values for the pectoral and pelvic skeleton, females and males and blacks and whites differ in the scaling relationship of these traits, suggesting different allometric trajectories for these bones that may be explained by their distinct evolutionary functions, their adaptations to specific environments, or by changes in lengths due to age. These results suggest that sexual dimorphism in the pectoral region is not a product of scaling and that differences in this region reflect adaptive forces acting in unique ways on each sex, consistent with the assumptions of earlier evolutionary explanations.
The Medieval-Post-Medieval transition in England was an important shift in the human biocultural environ-ment. With urbanization and industrialization came resultant changes in living and working conditions and subsequent effects on the skeleton. In addition, the Post-Medieval period ushered in changes in footwear and activity patterns, with potential consequences on foot bone morphology. The objective of this study is to compare calcaneal and talar lengths between the Medieval and Post-Medieval periods to determine whether there are quantifiable differences that correspond to shifting footwear and activity patterns. T-tests and ANCOVAs (and their non-parametric equivalents) were used to compare calcaneal and talar lengths of 1086 adults from 14 London cemeteries (Medieval n = 8, Post-Medieval n = 6), available in the Oracle Wellcome Osteological Research Database (WORD) curated by the Museum of London. Males and females were also analyzed separately. In the total sample, tali and calcanei are longer in the Medieval period (p < 0.001 for both tarsals). When males and females are analyzed separately, male talar length is greater in the Post-Medieval period (p < 0.001). The difference in talar length between periods is not statistically significant for females (p = 0.093). These differences in talar and calcaneal lengths between periods likely reflect differences in footwear between the Medieval and Post-Medieval periods. The magnitude of these differences varies according to sex, indicating that the change in footwear had differential impacts on men and women. Together, these results suggest that Medieval and Post-Medieval tarsals physi-cally incorporated their respective cultural environments and gendered differences in cultural practice, particularly related to the footwear characteristic of each period.
The paper presents the skeletal remains of an adult male of 30-40 years with bone lesions and deformity on the left hip, recovered during the archaeological excavation below the former Basilica of San Dionigi, dated to Late Antiquity (3rd - 5th century AD) Milan. Biological profile and paleopathological analysis were performed following standard references and the bones underwent radiological examination. Differential diagnosis included congenital anomaly, active rickets, infectious diseases, femoral neck trauma, Legg-Carvé-Perthes disease, Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SFCE), osteogenesis imperfecta and osteoporosis. While the lesions were highly consistent with Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, they were typical of SFCE, complicated by an avascular necrosis and secondary osteoarthrosis. The alteration of the femoral head led to a 7.8% leg-length discrepancy, causing gait alteration with partial compensation though increased muscular activity on the right leg, reduced mobility of the joint and potentially hip pain, difficulty in walking and running and even limping. This paper explores a case of physical disability from the Roman era found near a Christian place of worship and represents a rare case of SFCE in the paleopathological record.
Taurodontism is a continuous anatomical variation of permanent and primary posterior teeth represented by an enlargement of the pulp cavity. A high prevalence of the trait is reported in Homo neanderthalensis remains. Exploring and refining epidemiology of taurodontism in actual populations could strengthen the hypothesis of a selective advantage for a high attrition diet (as heavy tooth wear in Homo sapiens evolution changed little until recently) or favour pleiotropic or genetic drift effects to explain the high frequency of the trait in Neandertal remains. Prevalence ranges between 0.1% and 48% in the literature. The aim of the present study is to assess the prevalence of taurodontism in recent populations by means of meta-analysis, that is, is the prevalence of taurodontism lower or higher in modern human living populations, where the selective advantages of high attrition diet are still expected? From 90 potentially eligible studies, 15 were included in the meta-analysis. Only cross-sectional studies were reported, and 14,771 participants were included. The meta-analyses were performed with a random model, calculating a weighted-mean prevalence of 11.8%. Gender was found to be unrelated to the prevalence of taurodontism (OR = 0.84 (95% CI 0.67-1.05), p > 0.05). Taurodontism occurs in approximately 11.8% of the living population. This result questions the status of taurodontism as a "typical trait" in Homo neanderthalensis and allows a possible common evolutionary mechanism in Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis for the trait. Further studies should include more accurate and standardized methods to assess the condition.
Dental macrowear is the non-pathological loss of hard tissues on the occlusal surface of the teeth. In archaeological contexts, the loss of tooth tissues is often correlated with lifestyles, habits, and with the physical properties of the consumed food - including preparation techniques. We report the first semiquantitative and quantitative assessment on dentine exposure of permanent second molars (M2) using the scale scoring technique, image analysis, and regression analysis on human teeth from Chalcolithic and Bronze Age archaeological populations discovered in North-Eastern Romania. We show an increase of dentine exposure percent (PDE) with the age-ranges, but no evidence of wear by sex were observed. In the linear regression analysis, the age and the dentine exposure percent, as variables, were correlated in 31% of the mandibular M2 molars and 49% in the maxillary ones (p < 0.001). Moreover, the multiple regression analysis involving the dentine exposure and the three variables that could influence the dental wear (i.e., age, occlusal area, and period) revealed no differences in dental wear between Chalcolithic and Bronze Age, as well as between different cultures of Bronze Age (i.e., Monteoru Culture and Noua Culture). Therefore, apart from age, occlusal area, and period, there may be other factors including diet and food-processing techniques that could be also considered when discussing the loss of tooth tissues in archaeological populations, especially farmers.
Sex determination is one of the first biological attribute to be assessed when unidentified remains surface. In material of forensic interest, being able to use every skeletal element available for identification purposes is of paramount importance. The osteometric method from the sternal rib end has been found to generate accurate sex estimates, but as various studies have proved, all osteometric methods should be population-specific, as one equation does not fit all. The aim of this study is to assess sexual dimorphism in a contemporary Greek population sample of 68 males and 43 females, with the use of discriminant function analysis. The superior-inferior height (SIH) and anterior-posterior breadth (APB) from the third to fifth sternal rib ends of both sides were taken from 3D models created with the use of a hand-held 3D scanner. The results demonstrated that SIH is more sexually dimorphic than APB (alpha value of .05) while the application of İşcan's (1985) formula on the contemporary Greek sample, provided results of low accuracy, ranging from 48.6-52.4%. The cross-validated discriminant functions equations for the current sample, produced results ranging between 74.0-82.9% indicating that population-specific formulas produce results of higher accuracy, that are vital in cases of forensic interest.
This paper presents the changes caused by macroabrasion of teeth on skeletal remains found in tomb No 4 in the west necropolis of the archeological site Kopila near Blato on the island of Korčula. The site archeologically dates back to the Late Iron Age, when the island was inhabited by the Illyrians. The aim of this study was to assess the dental age of the buried individuals at death and determine the type of their diet, which could give us a preliminary insight into the socio-economic standard of the inhabitants of the settlement. The analyzed sample is part of the collection of excavated skeletal remains kept in the Vela Luka Cultural Center on the island of Korčula. 284 permanent teeth, 19 fragments of the maxilla and 20 fragments of the mandible were found in the tomb, which were classified into 32 individuals and by sex. Teeth were analyzed by metric and non-metric methods of determining dental status in order to assess the dental age at the time of death and the diet of the inhabitants. The dental age of individuals was determined by the Lovejoy method and the degree of tooth wear by the Smith-Knight method. The analysis of the stable isotope 14C determined the exact time of death of the analyzed individuals. The tooth wear changes were very pronounced and present on 92.9% of teeth, equally on incisors and molars (p = 0.236). There is no significant gender difference (p > 0.05 for all teeth and jaw parts). There was no difference in the degree of tooth wear of the teeth of the mandible and maxilla (t = -0.266, p = 0.791), nor in the degree of tooth wear of the teeth of the maxilla right and left (t = -0.392, p = 0.702) or in the degree of tooth wear of the teeth of the mandible right and left (t = -0.889, p = 0.390). The average age of the analyzed population sample was 35.6 (±3.1) years. They were buried between 360-40 BC. Tooth wear changes observed on the analyzed teeth indicate a diet rich in hard, weakly cariogenic food with particles that were probably of inorganic origin, which caused an increased wear of tooth structures. The population was sedentary, agricultural type and the life expectancy was normal for the Late Iron Age. Besides, their socio-economic status was good. The age at the time of their death was between 30 and 40 years. Further studies should include more accurate and standardized methods for assessing the condition.
Background: There are indications that the occurrence of metabolic diseases in children may be conditioned by factors experienced already in the utero. Aim of the study: The aim of this systematic review was to analyze the studies that examined the effects of stress experienced by a pregnant woman on the child's adiposity rates in postnatal life. Methods: The review includes 20 articles published before March 2020 in Scopus and Medline databases with the use of following keyword combinations: /maternal or mother/, /prenatal or pregnant/, /stress or distress/ and /BMI, body mass index or overweight or obesity or body composition/. Results: The results of the research were inconsistent. Nevertheless, most articles confirmed the positive association of prenatal stress with fatness indicators in children. The review raised a question of the role of the methods applied for stress measurement (objective vs. subjective indicators) and adiposity assessment, as well as the time of prenatal exposition to stress. Conclusion: Most studies have proved that prenatal stress is related to the children adiposity in postnatal life.
3D analysis of skeletal volumes has become an important field in digital anthropology studies. The volume of the mastoid process has been proposed to display significant sexual dimorphism, but it has a complex shape and to date no study has quantified the full mastoid volume for sex estimation purposes. In this study we compared three different ways to isolate the volume of the mastoid process from digital 3D models of dry crania, and then evaluated the performance of the three different volume definitions for sex estimation purposes. A total of 170 crania (86 male, 84 females) excavated from five medieval Croatian sites were CT-scanned and used to produce 3D stereolitographic models. The three different isolation techniques were based on various anatomical landmarks and planes, as well as the anatomy of the mastoid process itself. Measurements of the three different mastoid volumes yielded different accuracies and precisions. Interestingly, anatomical structures were sometimes more useful than classical landmarks as demarcators of mastoid volume. For all three volume definitions, male mastoid volumes were significantly larger than female volumes, in both relative and absolute numbers. Sex estimation based on mastoid volume showed a slightly higher precision and better accuracy (71% correct classifications) than visual scoring techniques (67%) and linear distance measurements (69%) of the mastoid process. Sex estimation based on cranial size performed even better (78%), and multifactorial analysis (cranium size + mastoid volume) reached up to 81% accuracy. These results show that measurements of the mastoid volume represent a promising metric to be used in multifactorial approaches for sex estimation of human remains.
Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in adults is thought to reflect specific types of developmental stress. If true, adult FA may be a proxy for developmental stress in past as well as current populations. To date, studies of the link between development and adult FA have produced ambiguous results due to insufficient measurement data for childhood environments. This study seeks to overcome this limitation using a structural equation modeling approach to evaluate the relationship between 29 measures of developmental environments and precise measures of adult FA. Sociodemographic information and 3D facial photographs were collected from 80 adult New Mexicans. Facial FA was measured from the photographs using geometric morphometric analysis of 12 facial landmarks. Each participant responded to a questionnaire addressing the developmental environment, including childhood home environment, family SES, health, and dietary quality. We used structural equation models to examine predictive relationships between latent variables constructed from questionnaire responses and adult facial FA. Childhood dietary quality was negatively associated with adult FA scores, meaning that poorer diets predict higher FA (standardized path coefficient -0.174, p = 0.039). Factors that loaded positively on the dietary quality construct were a diet quality index, the frequency of homemade meals, and the frequency of homemade breakfast, while the frequency of fast-food meals loaded negatively. No other latent variable predicted adult facial FA. We posit that the negative relationship between dietary quality and FA reflects a negative energy balance experienced during development. Insufficient nutrition results in a reduced capacity to buffer against environmental perturbations, with increased FA as evidence. Given previously established links between FA and adult health outcomes in humans, this finding also underscores the importance of dietary quality during development for ensuring health and wellbeing later in life. These results indicate that FA in facial shape may signal the relative quality of dietary conditions during development.
