This research synthesis examined the characteristics and outcome patterns of reading interventions that included language comprehension instruction for elementary-aged English learners (ELs) with or at risk for reading difficulties. Studies were included if they examined multisession, primarily English reading interventions in U.S. K–5 school settings for ELs with or at risk for reading difficulties, used experimental or quasi-experimental group designs (≥15 students per group), and reported language or reading comprehension outcomes. Nine studies met the inclusion criteria (total N = 2,008). Across studies, language comprehension instruction was most often embedded within multicomponent reading interventions rather than implemented as a standalone focus. Vocabulary instruction was the most prevalent language component, whereas morphology was less common and explicit syntax/semantic relations were rare. All interventions also included code-based instruction (e.g., decoding instruction), which complicated isolation of language-specific effects. Across outcomes, findings were mixed, with several studies reporting growth in both intervention and business-as-usual conditions. Implications are discussed for designing and studying developmentally responsive language comprehension instruction within reading intervention for ELs at risk.
Text reading fluency (TRF) is widely used to identify students at risk for reading difficulties, yet evidence for its screening utility beyond the elementary grades remains limited. This study examined the accuracy of TRF for identifying students with reading comprehension difficulties at ages 9, 12, and 14. Three cutoff-selection approaches were compared: optimization-based methods, fixed sensitivity thresholds (SE ≥ .90), and norm-referenced percentiles. Receiver operating characteristic analyses evaluated the classification performance of each approach. Results showed that TRF significantly predicted reading comprehension difficulties across grades, but classification performance depended strongly on cutoff selection. These findings suggest that inconsistencies in prior research may partly reflect differences in cutoff-selection methods rather than differences in predictive validity. When high sensitivity is required, TRF should be used within a multistage screening framework with follow-up assessments. When used as a stand-alone screening measure, optimization-based cutoffs provide the most defensible thresholds.
For students with mathematics difficulties (MD), persistent struggles in algebra may be compounded by deficits in their conceptual understanding of a variable. This study evaluated a tutoring intervention designed to target critical foundational algebra concepts with a focus on explicitly remediating deficits in students’ understanding of variables, including their meaning, representation, and use in equations and expressions. Using a single-group pretest-posttest design with a sample of 23 eighth-grade students, the effects of an eight-week intervention were evaluated on both specific and general measures of algebra proficiency. Paired-samples t -tests revealed statistically significant gains across several key outcomes. Results provide initial evidence that remediating this core conceptual deficit can improve both specific and generalized algebra outcomes for students with MD.
Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model, this study examined differential stress-coping mechanisms among Taiwanese junior high school students ( N = 898; seventh–ninth grade; 55.8% male), comprising 491 typically developing students and 407 students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) formally identified under Taiwan's Special Education Act. Results revealed that social support alleviated learning frustration in non-SLD students, but this effect was absent in SLD students. Learning frustration impaired self-efficacy in non-SLD students but directly impacted well-being in SLD students without affecting self-efficacy. Negative life events directly affected well-being only in SLD students. Social support mediated well-being through self-efficacy in both groups, whereas coping strategies showed stronger mediation effects in SLD students. These findings highlight distinct stress-coping pathways and inform differentiated, evidence-based interventions for students with SLD.
Multi-tiered systems of support in reading (MTSS-R) allocate instructional resources to identify and address students’ needs. Tier 1 instruction is designed to meet the needs of most students, with more intensive standardized instruction provided in Tier 2 for students who need additional support. Prior research has emphasized the importance of high-quality Tier 1 instruction and alignment with Tier 2 interventions, but noted that few Tier 2 studies reported sufficient information to determine fidelity or alignment of school-implemented Tier 1 instruction. This review synthesized experimental studies ( k = 26) published since 2011 and found that while reporting of Tier 2 intervention fidelity has improved, many studies provide limited information about school-implemented Tier 1 instruction. Nonetheless, more studies assess or actively manipulate Tier 1 instruction. Increased attention to the wider MTSS-R context of Tier 2 intervention has implications for practice and future research.
Cognition-based assessment (CBA) was used to investigate how students with mathematics learning disabilities (MLDs) understand the area measurement of a rectangle and how such an understanding relates to their concept definitions. The qualitative case study involved six sixth-grade students with MLD, who responded to interview questions varying according to the visibility of unit squares in a set of figures presented. The researchers employed the levels of sophistication (LoS) conceptual framework to discuss students’ mental processes in understanding area measurement. The findings indicated that students’ LoS in array structuring varied across problem types. Students using more elaborated conceptual definitions demonstrated higher understanding levels of rectangular area measurement. Additionally, Level 2 of the LoS framework (which starts at 0 and ends at 8) was refined by adding sublevels, offering a more nuanced understanding of students’ reasoning. These insights can inform more targeted instructional planning and support for learners with MLD in future research and practice.
Achievement gaps in literacy persist between students with disabilities and general education peers. Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is an evidence-based approach for teaching writing to high school students. This quasi-experimental study examined the effects of teacher-implemented SRSD instruction for source-based informative writing and its impact on student growth and existing achievement gaps across demographic groups. Participants included three teachers and 97 students from two high schools. Teachers received practice-based professional development and ongoing support while implementing SRSD in inclusive English Language Arts classrooms. Structural equation modeling examined whether improvements in writing performance were influenced by gender, disability, and English learner status. Results indicated stable or improved performance across writing measures. SRSD instruction resulted in equitable growth across demographic groups; notably, baseline differences for students with disabilities did not widen. Teacher interviews and student surveys indicated high social validity, supporting SRSD as an effective approach for teaching source-based informative writing.
Mathematics writing can be challenging for students experiencing mathematics difficulty (MD). Research has connected general writing, mathematics vocabulary, computation, and word-problem solving as potential factors influencing the mathematics-writing performance of students with MD, but limited research has examined the exact relation between these factors and mathematics writing. In this study, we examined (a) the correlation between mathematics writing and general writing, mathematics vocabulary, computation, and word-problem solving; and (b) the predictive power of general writing, mathematics vocabulary, computation, and word-problem solving on mathematics writing. Mathematics writing correlated with each factor with moderate correlations for computation and word-problem solving. Each factor also explained unique and significant variance in mathematics writing, with computation and word-problem solving accounting for the largest percentage of the variance. The results demonstrate a strong influence of computation and word-problem solving on mathematics writing. Therefore, it may be beneficial to consider emphasizing mathematics content with mathematics-writing instruction.
Social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills have been found to predict academic and non-academic outcomes; however,students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) may show weaker SEB profiles and SEB may not translate into better gradesfor this population of students. In 5,075 high school students, including 243 reporting an SLD diagnosis, we compared socialengagement, self-management, innovation, emotional resilience, and cooperation skills, examined multiple self-regulatedlearning factors, and tested SEB-by-group interactions for grades, life satisfaction, and self-regulated learning. Studentswith SLD scored lower in self-management (beta=-0.32), innovation (beta=-0.39), social engagement (beta=-0.27), and cooper-ation (beta=-0.32). Furthermore, we meta-analyzed thesefindings with previous data to update the literature. Finally, descrip-tive analyses suggested that higher SEB skills, especially self-management, may translate less strongly into higher grades in theSLD group compared to students without SLD. Overall, students with SLDs showed a poorer profile of SEB skills.
Although practice is essential for academic development, questions remain regarding how much and what kinds of practice best support early learners. To examine the role of practice in developing mathematical proficiency, we analyzed rates of guided and independent practice opportunities provided in a kindergarten mathematics intervention for 880 students with mathematics difficulties (MD) across 255 groups. Results indicate that (a) students' initial skills levels did not predict rates of practice opportunities provided, (b) rates of practice were not associated with student performance changes, (c) effects were not moderated by initial skills, and (d) no optimal ratio of guided to independent practice, or guided practice to academic feedback, emerged. Findings suggest that while providing deliberate, purposeful practice is crucial, effectiveness does not depend on fixed thresholds. Instead, teachers should scaffold practice opportunities based on student need, adjusting supported and independent practice within high-quality instruction. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Students with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) often face numerous challenges and possess fewer coping resources than their typical peers. This study explored how ego depletion, anxiety, perceived social support, and hope predict sense of coherence (SOC) among students with and without NDDs during contextual stress. The sample comprised 347 students (M = 27.6 years, SD = 6.02; 75.5% female), including 97 (28%) with NDDs diagnosis (learning disorder and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder). Participants completed self-report measures of perceived social support, SOC, hope, ego depletion, and generalized anxiety. Compared to students without NDDs, NDD students reported lower SOC and hope but higher perceived social support, ego depletion, and anxiety. Perceived social support, hope, ego depletion, and anxiety sequentially mediated the relationship between group status and SOC. Although social support and hope acted as protective factors linked to higher SOC, students with NDDs still experienced greater ego depletion and anxiety. These findings highlight the interplay between interpersonal and intrapersonal resources in maintaining SOC.
Strong fictional and personal narrative storytelling skills enable individuals to express their imaginative ideas, intelligence, and personal experience. However, most secondary students with disabilities experience significant difficulty writing narratives. The effects of a technology-integrated version of Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) for the POW (Pick my genre then idea, Organize my notes, Write and say more) + STACS (Setting, Tension, rising Action, Climax, and Solution) secondary-level narrative writing strategy were evaluated for 16 eighth-grade students with disabilities and significant writing difficulties. The investigation was broken into two studies: Study 1 was a treatment-control group design and Study 2 was a pre-/post design for students who were part of the Study 1 control group. Both studies documented statistically significant, large effects for between- and within-group comparisons for story grammar element, strategy-specific element, essay length, and narrative-genre identification measures following technology-based SRSD for POW + STACS strategy lessons. Implications for practice are discussed.
Difficulties with study skills are often reported in children with specific learning disabilities (SLDs), yet few studies have examined how strategy use relates to learning outcomes. This study investigated the perceived utility, actual use, and coherence of study strategies in 89 students with and 809 without SLD in Grades 3-8. The students completed strategy questionnaires and performed two study tasks; their teachers provided achievement ratings. Students with SLD reported lower use and perceived utility of functional strategies and showed greater incoherence between perceived utility and actual use. Across groups, regressions indicated that perceived utility of functional strategies predicted higher achievement, whereas the use and perceived utility of less functional strategies were detrimental to achievement. However, two strategy scores predicted achievement differently in the SLD group: The use of functional strategies and incoherence were unrelated to achievement. Findings point to the importance of helping students with SLD to strengthen effective strategy use and align perceived utility with actual use.
Fraction arithmetic is a foundational aspect of mathematics education, yet many students, particularly those with mathematics difficulties (MD), struggle with this skill. The present study examined the types of errors made by 251 sixth-grade students with MD when solving simple fraction addition, subtraction, and multiplication problems. Ten distinct error categories emerged from the coding process. The errors indicated that many sixth-grade students with MD rely on flawed procedural strategies rather than drawing on conceptual understanding of fractions or operations. Targeted interventions are suggested that strengthen foundational fraction concepts and operational knowledge, especially with familiar fractions, are needed to support students with MD in developing a deeper, more flexible understanding of fractions, enabling them to reason confidently rather than depend on flawed procedural approaches.
Self-regulated learning and affective-motivational factors are increasingly recognized as key determinants of academic success but remain understudied in university students with specific learning difficulties (SLDs). The aim of the present study was to compare how students with and without SLDs differ across these factors and to test whether group differences vary as a function of time since enrollment in a sample of 392 university students. Results showed that students with SLDs reported lower self-regulated learning skills, but no main effects of diagnosis emerged for academic self-efficacy, learning goals, academic anxiety, or resilience. However, time since enrollment interacted with group differences in learning goals and academic anxiety: the longer they had studied, the more likely students with SLDs were to report lower mastery-oriented goals and higher academic anxiety relative to peers. Findings underscore the need for targeted supports that strengthen self-regulated learning skills and address goal orientation and academic anxiety management early in their academic career for students with SLDs.
This study examined whether the type and timing of handwriting instruction (manuscript-first vs concurrent manuscript-and-cursive) influence first graders' reading performance in Hebrew. We further assessed whether effects vary between typical and at-risk readers. A total of 102 first graders participated. Classrooms were assigned to two conditions. One group learned manuscript handwriting throughout first grade, with cursive introduced only in the last 2 months; the other learned manuscript and cursive in parallel from the start of the year. Students were examined at the beginning of the year to check their language and letter-naming abilities before learning to read and again at the middle and at the end of the year to examine their reading fluency and comprehension. Results showed that by the end of the year, the manuscript group had higher scores on all reading measures. When students were divided into typical and at-risk readers based on end-of-year orthographic word recognition, typical readers in the manuscript group had higher fluency scores, whereas at-risk readers in the manuscript group had higher accuracy. Reading comprehension was also higher in the manuscript group for both reader types. Educational implications for the timing of cursive instruction in novice Hebrew readers are discussed in the context of reading development and orthographic characteristics.
Elementary students with learning disabilities (LDs) often have limited opportunities to learn science, and little is known about how special educators engage in science instruction. This study drew on a nationally representative survey of elementary special education teachers to describe their roles, preparedness, time allocation, and perceived barriers. Most teachers reported minimal discipline-specific preparation and felt less prepared to teach science than other subjects. Many noted that students with LDs often missed science classes because of pull-out instruction. Common barriers to students receiving science instruction included remediation priorities and accountability pressures in tested subjects. These findings provide a national snapshot of science instruction for elementary students with LDs and point to the need for greater teacher preparation and policy support to ensure access to high-quality science learning for students with LDs.
Emergent bilingual learners whose first language (L1) is Spanish and second language (L2) is English make up a large percentage of students who do not demonstrate proficiency in math. In 2024, 48% of fourth-grade students who were identified as English learners performed below basic proficiency in mathematics, compared to 21% of students who reported English as their primary language. This study investigated the relationship between instructional practices and late math difficulties (MD) in emerging bilingual children. Participants were emergent bilingual children (N = 230) clustered within 30 classrooms in Year 1, 32 classrooms in Year 2, and 26 classrooms in Year 3. Children were divided into three groups: Children with persistent MD (n = 46), children with late MD (n = 109), and average achievers (n = 75). A cross-level multilevel logistic model examined the extent to which the dosage or type of math instructional activities in Year 1 and Year 2 moderated the likelihood that average achievers and children with persistent MD varied from children with late MD at Year 3. At the student level, the likelihood of group differences in Year 3 was significantly related to earlier performance on Spanish measures of problem-solving, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Direct instructional effects on the likelihood of later MD, independent of student characteristics, were related to the frequency of in-class activities that included guided practice and peer-to-peer interactions. Furthermore, the influence of early L1 achievement measures (i.e., problem-solving, comprehension, vocabulary) on later math achievement was moderated by guided practice, peer interactions, and fluency training. The results suggest that the frequency of instructional practices can reduce the occurrence of later MD in emerging bilingual children.
Developmental dyslexia (DYS) is a neurobehavioral disorder frequently linked to a pervasive phonological deficit. However, the influence of socioevaluative pressure such as expectations regarding their reading abilities remains underexplored. We investigated the impact of such pressure on phonological processing in French-speaking DYS children compared to peers matched on reading level and chronological age. Using a two-step protocol with simple visual syllable-based detection tasks, we modulated socioevaluative pressure through instructions. Under stress-reducing instructions, DYS children showed near-normal syllable effects despite slower processing. By contrast, threat-triggering instructions elicited significant declines in reading speed (14.4-16.4% slower) and accuracy (10.8-11.4% less accurate) and syllable effects disappeared, indicating choking under pressure. These findings underscore the role of socioevaluative factors and highlight degraded access to syllable representations. Our results prompt a discussion on the impact of socioevaluative pressure on the expression and amplitude of reading (dis)abilities, complicating characterization and remediation in DYS children.
This study examined associations between special education services and academic and behavioral outcomes for students identified with learning disabilities (LD) using statewide data from Indiana covering kindergarten through eighth grade. Results from student fixed-effects models indicate that special education services are associated with higher achievement in math and English language arts, but also with increased school disciplinary incidents, including suspensions and expulsions, and higher numbers of absences. These associations differ across student subgroups, including gender, race/ethnicity, eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch, and English language learner status. The findings underscore the complex nature of special education services, highlighting heterogeneous patterns across both outcomes and student subgroups.
