OBJECTIVE:To update the Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Dependency Scale and assess its reliability and validity among college students in China. METHODS:The Chinese version of the Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Dependency Scale was administered to 986 university students. The Generative AI Addiction Scale and the Chinese Big Five Personality Questionnaire Short - Form were used as comparators. The sample was randomly divided into two groups: 491 participants (Sample 1) for item analysis and exploratory factor analysis, and 495 participants (Sample 2) for confirmatory factor analysis. A subsample of 324 participants from both groups underwent retesting after 4 weeks. RESULTS:Exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors that cumulatively explained 76.819% of the total variance. The three - factor model of the Generative AI Dependency Scale (cognitive distress, negative consequences, avoidance tendency) was validated among Chinese university students. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a good model fit for the three - factor model (χ2/41 = 2.29, P < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.03, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96); the total score of the Generative AI Dependency Scale showed significant positive correlations with generative AI addiction, openness, agreeableness, neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness (r = 0.17-0.75, P < 0.01); the internal consistency coefficient of the scale was 0.932, with coefficients ranging from 0.804 to 0.948 for each dimension' s mean score; the test - retest reliability (ICC) for the total scale was 0.851, with ICCs for each dimension' s mean score ranging from 0.628 to 0.788 (P < 0.001); based on a three - factor model, cross - gender and cross - grade measurement invariance was assessed for form invariance, weak invariance, strong invariance, and strict invariance. ΔCFI and ΔTLI values were both <0.01, while ΔRMSEA values were all <0.015, indicating that the generative AI dependency scale possesses measurement invariance across genders and academic years. CONCLUSION:The Chinese version of the Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Dependency Scale is a useful assessment tool for determining generative AI dependency among Chinese university students because it shows strong validity, reliability, and measurement invariance.
Women's silence in abusive marriages is often conceptualised within broader literature as passive submission, limiting understanding of women's agency and silence within abusive contexts. This study explored how Indian women experiencing spousal abuse negotiate identity, agency, and silence within patriarchal relational spaces where abuse tolerance is culturally normalized. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 married Indian women experiencing IPV, and narrative thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes around agency, silence, and identity. Findings revealed that women showcased resistance through active reconstruction of narratives around abuse tolerance and ideal womanhood, that centred their well-being over relational preservation. Further, resistance and agency in abusive contexts were also shown by women through rejection of patriarchal gender roles and identities. The findings also highlight that women actively engaged in the self-reclamation process, through rechannelising of their energy on building their agency. Silence was actively chosen by women, as a form of resistance to withdraw their energy from abusive relational spaces and reinvest it on themselves. The findings demonstrate that women are active agents that constantly negotiate survival, identity, agency in the oppressive relational and cultural contexts and reconceptualises silence as a dynamic identity process, whose meanings and functions shift across context.
As AI advances, specifying which competencies learners will need grows harder, making it urgent to identify stable approaches for cultivating competencies that remain valuable regardless of which AI tools emerge next. Problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) may provide one suitable learning context for this: by integrating generative AI (GenAI) into authentic problem solving and meaningful production, they may help cultivate the judgment to evaluate AI outputs and the capacity to coordinate AI use across complex workflows, capacities that may remain relevant to competent work in future social and professional life. As an early-stage synthesis, this study brings together emerging evidence to clarify key concepts in this nascent field. A three-level meta-analysis of 22 controlled studies (66 effect sizes, January 2023-April 2026) found significant effects across four learner-internal outcome domains (learning achievement and skill performance, higher-order thinking, affective and motivational outcomes, and collaboration and communication outcomes), yielding an overall effect of g = 0.819. Sensitivity analyses indicated small-study effects, suggesting that the unadjusted effect may be inflated; the PEESE specification yielded a reduced estimate of g = 0.378. Exploratory moderator analyses indicated that pooled effect estimates differed significantly by participant number and GenAI tool type; peer collaboration showed a marginal trend. Product and solution performance, a traditional focus of PBL/PjBL assessment, was modeled separately; its large pooled estimate (g = 1.958) may reflect AI-augmented task performance, but its wide prediction interval crossed zero, indicating substantial uncertainty across settings. Overall, the evidence is promising but preliminary.
Autobiographical memory serves both private reflection and social communication, yet little is known about how these retrieval modes differ in physiological demands. We investigated whether overt (spoken) versus covert (silent) autobiographical retrieval differentially modulates pupil activity— a sensitive index of cognitive processing. Forty-four participants recalled personal memories under overt and covert conditions, alongside overt and covert counting control tasks, while pupil size was continuously recorded. Results revealed significantly larger pupil diameters during overt retrieval compared with covert retrieval, despite equivalent memory specificity and emotional intensity across conditions. Overt retrieval elicited greater dilation than overt counting, and covert retrieval elicited greater dilation than covert counting, confirming that autobiographical reconstruction itself imposes cognitive effort. The increased dilation during overt compared with covert retrieval may reflect additional demands related to narrative organization, social monitoring, emotional regulation, communicative processing, and other task-related cognitive processes. These findings suggest that speaking about personal memories engages additional cognitive and socio-cognitive demands beyond silent recollection and demonstrate that pupillometry provides a useful window into the processes supporting autobiographical retrieval. Overall, our results indicate that overt and covert autobiographical retrieval are associated with different pupillary responses, with overt retrieval eliciting greater dilation than covert retrieval.
In this cross-sectional, survey study, the generalized appraisals of recent Chinese family films were examined in relation with participants' general levels of filial piety, family obligation, and emotion-regulation tendencies. The study was not designed to test the association of viewing or of objective coded film content, but rather, it used perceived ethical narrative emphasis and perceived emotional narrative intensity as retrospective appraisals at the viewer level of the amount of family-film viewing in the last 12 months. Adult viewers (N = 452) from Xi'an, Wuhan, Nanjing, and Kunming, China were recruited to gather data and a PLS-SEM analysis was used to analyze the data. The direct-path results indicated a positive association between perceived ethical narrative emphasis and authoritarian filial piety (β = 0.31, p < .001), family obligation (β = 0.27, p < .001), and expressive suppression (β = 0.19, p = .001). Reciprocal filial piety (β = 0.34, p < .001) and cognitive reappraisal (β = 0.22, p < .001) were significantly and positively related to perceived emotional narrative intensity. The explained variance of each model was R2 = 0.29 for the authoritarian filial piety model, R2 = 0.22 for the family obligation model, R2 = 0.31 for the reciprocal filial piety model, R2 = 0.18 for the cognitive reappraisal model, and R2 = 0.15 for the expressive suppression model. Moral elevation, transportation, and character identification were selected indirect associations that were small but significant. The ethical-emphasis-to-moral-elevation association was moderated by the need to think, the emotional-intensity-to-character-identification association was moderated by the need to feel, and interdependent self-construal was associated with selected links between the narrative-processing states and the filial outcomes. Reliability and validity diagnostics were acceptable (Cronbach's α = 0.82-0.91; CR = 0.87-0.94; AVE = 0.55-0.67; SRMR = 0.062). The results provide support for a moderately dual-pathway account in which perceived ethical and emotional narrative appraisals are differentially linked to the hierarchical and gratitude-oriented versions of filiality and to family obligations and to habitual emotion regulation tendencies. The results are to be considered as patterned associations and not as proof of narrative processing change, since the design is cross-sectional, retrospective and the content of the films cannot be generalized, nor can the film stimuli be set aside.
Objective We examined racial/ethnic differences in endorsement of masculinity norms, intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and sociodemographic factors among non-Latino Black, Latino, and non-Latino White men. We also assessed the direct effects of IPV and endorsement of masculinity norms on PTSD, and the moderating effects of endorsement of masculinity norms on the IPV-PTSD relationship, controlling for relevant covariates. Method Participants (N = 1194; non-Latino Black: n = 299, non-Latino White: n = 299, and Latino: n = 596 men) were recruited via Centiment, a crowd-sourcing platform. Bivariate analyses examined racial/ethnic differences across study variables. Structural equation models tested the independent effects of IPV victimization and endorsement of masculinity norms on PTSD symptoms, and the moderating role of endorsement of masculinity norms in the IPV-PTSD relationship. Results Statistically significant differences were observed in endorsement of masculinity norms and IPV victimization, but not PTSD symptoms. IPV victimization and endorsement of masculinity norms was significantly associated with PTSD symptoms for both Latino and White men. For Black men, only IPV victimization was associated with PTSD symptoms. Endorsement of masculinity norms did not moderate the IPV-PTSD relationship for any racial/ethnic group. Conclusion IPV victimization was associated with increased PTSD symptoms in male survivors. Although endorsement of masculinity norms was associated with PTSD symptomology for Latino and White men, it did not moderate the IPV-PTSD relationship for any racial/ethnic groups. These findings highlight that interventions should be tailored to men across cultures and contexts. Trauma-informed interventions should assess how beliefs about masculinity norms may improve disclosure, engagement, and recovery among male IPV victims.
BACKGROUND:Generative artificial intelligence systems require users to formulate, evaluate, and refine prompts, making strategic prompting a relevant self-regulatory behavior in human-AI interaction. However, the psychological factors associated with this behavior remain underexplored. OBJECTIVE:This study examined whether the approach and avoidance components of Need for Cognition are associated with self-reported strategic prompting and whether general technostress related to technology-enhanced learning moderates these associations. METHOD:A total of 229 Italian university students who reported using generative AI completed self-report measures of technostress, NFC approach, NFC avoidance, and strategic prompting. Pearson correlations and a combined moderation analysis were conducted. RESULTS:NFC approach was positively associated with strategic prompting, whereas technostress was negatively associated with it. Technostress did not moderate the relationship between NFC approach and strategic prompting, but it moderated the relationship between NFC avoidance and strategic prompting, which became more negative at higher levels of technostress. CONCLUSIONS:Self-reported strategic prompting is associated with cognitive-motivational dispositions and general academic technostress.
This study aimed to determine the psychometric indicators of the Cognitive Motivation Scale (CMS) among Iranian adolescents. The sample included 321 adolescents in Ahvaz city, Iran, who completed the Cognitive Motivation Scale (CMS), Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire (CAQ), and Need for Cognition Scale (NCS). To validate the scale, common procedures for assessing validity and reliability were used, including content validity, construct validity, convergent and divergent validity, and questionnaire reliability. Cronbach's alpha coefficient, confirmatory factor analysis, and the Pearson correlation method were used to analyze the data. The results of confirmatory factor analysis with the 2-factor model of the Cognitive Motivation Scale indicate the suitability of the model for the collected data. The results of the convergent validity study showed that there is a relatively strong and significant relationship between the Shamanic Motivation Scale and the Need for Cognition Scale (P < .05), and for the divergent validity, there is a weak and significant relationship with the Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire (P < .05). Therefore, the convergent and divergent validity of the cognitive motivation scale is confirmed. These findings have implications for more accurate and practical assessment of adolescents, early detection of mood disorders among Iranian adolescents, and the design of educational-psychological interventions.
Background Previous research on music education has often examined cognitive development, psychological well-being, or academic engagement as separate domains, and has frequently relied on quantitative or outcome-oriented designs. Less attention has been given to how university students themselves interpret and make sense of music education in relation to these interconnected aspects of their academic and personal lives. This study addresses this gap by exploring non-music university students' perceptions of how engagement with music education relates to cognitive processes, psychological well-being, and academic engagement. Methods The study adopted a qualitative research design and used semi-structured interviews with 78 non-music students from multiple higher education institutions in Shandong Province, China. Interviews were conducted both in person and via WeChat to capture diverse experiences. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, allowing patterns of meaning to emerge inductively from participants' narratives. Results The analysis identified nine themes organized across three research domains. In relation to cognitive development, participants described perceptions of sustained attention and cognitive control, memory and information processing, and cognitive skill transfer, particularly involving pattern recognition, analytical thinking, and problem-solving strategies. Regarding psychological well-being, students articulated experiences connected to emotional regulation, stress and anxiety management, and psychological resilience, framing music as part of their everyday emotional coping and reflection. Concerning academic engagement and performance, participants described perceived connections between musical engagement and structured study habits, learning strategies, motivation, and academic confidence. Across all domains, accounts were framed as personal interpretations and lived experiences rather than objective changes or measured outcomes. Conclusions The findings illustrate how university students perceive music education as meaningfully intertwined with their cognitive experiences, emotional lives, and academic engagement. Rather than music education as producing specific cognitive, psychological, or academic effects, this study highlights its role as a contextual and experiential space through which students interpret attention, learning, emotional regulation, and confidence. By foregrounding students' voices, the study contributes qualitative insight into how music education is understood within higher education and complements existing outcome-based research with a meaning-centered perspective.
In recent years, increasing attention has been devoted to understanding teachers' psychological vulnerability from broader perspectives incorporating transdiagnostic variables. In this context, the present study aimed to identify psychological vulnerability profiles among secondary school teachers and to examine their associations with sociodemographic and professional characteristics. A sample of 444 teachers (Mage = 41.76, SD = 10.80; 50% women) was analyzed using a person-centered approach. Four distinct transdiagnostic vulnerability profiles emerged: low vulnerability, emotional-social vulnerability, cognitive vulnerability, and high overall vulnerability. The profiles differed significantly across the psychological variables, revealing clearly differentiated patterns of functioning. Significant differences were also observed across profiles in relation to age, teaching experience, gender, marital status, parenthood, and professional role. Profiles characterized by higher vulnerability were associated with lower teaching experience, a higher proportion of women, and other sociodemographic and professional characteristics. These findings indicate that psychological vulnerability among teachers is not a homogeneous construct but is organized into distinct configurations. The results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of teachers' psychological functioning by demonstrating that transdiagnostic vulnerability factors cluster into distinct and meaningful configurations rather than varying along a single continuum of risk. Furthermore, they may inform the development of preventive and support initiatives targeting common transdiagnostic processes associated with teacher vulnerability.
The advancement of digital technologies has spurred a surge in research on informal digital learning of English (IDLE) in second language (L2) acquisition. However, few studies have compared the relationships between artificial intelligence (AI) and non-AI-IDLE on affective variables such as grit, motivation, self-confidence, and L2 speaking anxiety, which are associated with L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). To address this gap, this study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context of Iran, collecting data through 250 questionnaires and 10 semi-structured interviews. Multiple regression modeling revealed that while both digital environments correlated with the affective variables, only non-AI IDLE, self-confidence, grit, and motivation acted as significant predictors of L2 WTC. Complementing these statistical insights, thematic analysis of the qualitative findings provided critical context for this human-centric preference, suggesting that non-AI-IDLE fostered greater community engagement and situational awareness compared to AI-IDLE. These results highlight the importance of balancing AI and non-AI IDLE to support students' affective variables and enhance their L2 WTC. This research not only contributes to a deeper understanding of IDLE and L2 communication behaviors but also emphasizes the need for further investigation into the evolving role of AI in informal language learning in the rapidly changing world.
Suicidal ideation (SI) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are clinically important mental health concerns among university students, yet longitudinal evidence distinguishing new-onset and persistent patterns remains limited. This one-year longitudinal study examined changes in SI and NSSI and baseline factors associated with their new onset and persistence among Chinese university students. A total of 672 students completed baseline and follow-up assessments. McNemar tests and Firth logistic regression analyses were performed. The prevalence of SI increased from 8.0% to 10.9%, and the prevalence of NSSI increased from 6.3% to 11.8%. New-onset and persistent SI occurred in 6.4% and 4.5% of participants, respectively; the corresponding proportions for NSSI were 7.3% and 4.5%. In the parsimonious multivariable models, single-parent family structure, left-behind experience, and depression were associated with new-onset SI, whereas single-parent family structure, depression, and anxiety were associated with new-onset NSSI. Persistent-outcome analyses were based on small baseline-positive subgroups and were considered exploratory. These findings provide preliminary evidence of outcome-specific longitudinal associations and require confirmation in larger multicenter studies before informing targeted screening or intervention strategies.
OBJECTIVE:Examine the associations between Physical Fitness Index (PFI) and specific executive function (EF) subdomains (inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility) among Tibetan adolescents aged 10-12 years in China's high-altitude areas. METHODS:A total of 376 Tibetan adolescents (184 boys, 192 girls) aged 10-12 years were recruited from four cities in the Tibet Autonomous Region (Lhasa 3650 m, Nagqu 4500 m, Qamdo 3500 m, Nyingchi 3100 m) using stratified cluster random sampling. PFI was calculated from grip strength, sit-ups, standing long jump, 20-s side shuffles, sit-and-reach, 50-m sprint, and 20-m shuttle run (20mSRT). EF was assessed using the Flanker task (inhibitory control), 1-back task (working memory), and More-odd Shifting task (cognitive flexibility). Hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine the relationship between PFI and EF after adjusting for age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, weekly sleep duration, and city. RESULTS:PFI was significantly negatively associated with congruent and incongruent reaction times (RTs) from the Flanker task, as well as with working memory and cognitive flexibility RTs. However, PFI was not significantly associated with the Flanker interference effect (incongruent minus congruent RT), which specifically indexes inhibitory control (P > 0.05). After covariate adjustment, higher PFI correlated with faster working memory (P < 0.05) and cognitive flexibility (P < 0.01), but not with the interference effect. CONCLUSIONS:Among Tibetan adolescents aged 10-12 years living at high altitude, higher physical fitness index is associated with better working memory and cognitive flexibility, but not with the Flanker interference effect.
Digital transformation has become a strategic pathway toward sustainable and equitable education worldwide. For higher education English teachers, digital literacy is particularly vital for integrating technology into language teaching. However, empirical research examining the factors influencing teachers' digital literacy in underdeveloped and unevenly resourced regions such as Guizhou, China, remains limited. This study examines factors influencing the digital literacy of higher education English teachers in Guizhou, China, focusing on the mediating role of digital self-efficacy. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model and Social Cognitive Theory, an integrated framework was tested using PLS-SEM with data from 312 respondents. Results show that digital self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between perceived usefulness and digital literacy, while partially mediating the relationships of perceived ease of use, professional learning communities, training, and government policy. The findings highlight the important role of self-efficacy in shaping digital literacy and offer practical implications for policymakers, administrators, and teachers. Beyond practical implications, this study contributes theoretically by explaining how perceptual factors and external supports jointly shape digital literacy through digital self-efficacy, while offering insights into the mechanisms underlying digital literacy formation in resource-constrained contexts.
College students in the digital intelligence era face severe challenges of time poverty, yet the length of existing measurement tools limits large-scale screening, and a variable-centered perspective obscures the heterogeneity of the time experience. This study aimed to develop an efficient assessment tool and reveal the latent subtypes of time poverty and their anxiety correlates. Study 1 utilized a genetic algorithm to abbreviate the College Students' Perceived Time Poverty Scale. Based on a global optimization search of the training set (n1 = 811), an 8-item short-form scale (CSPTP-GA) was developed. In the validation set (n2 = 719), the scale demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach's α > 0.70), excellent fit indices (χ2/df = 2.78, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.992, IFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.984, SRMR = 0.03), and strong measurement invariance across gender and educational level. Study 2 conducted a latent profile analysis on 507 college students based on the CSPTP-GA, identifying four distinct subgroups: the Low Time Poverty Group (31%), the Academic Conflict Perception Group (20%), the Moderate Time Poverty Group (16%), and the High Time Poverty Group (33%). The Academic Conflict Perception Group identified by the latent profile analysis exhibited characteristics of being objectively not busy but subjectively anxious, forcefully corroborating the theoretical hypothesis that "busyness does not equal poverty". Furthermore, males and undergraduate students were found to be relatively protected against high time poverty compared to females and postgraduates. This study not only confirms the psychometric efficacy of the genetic algorithm but also emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between objective resource scarcity and subjective cognitive conflict for precision intervention.
This naturalistic single-arm pre-post study, conducted across three preschool groups and grounded in cultural-historical theory, examined changes in children's pretend-play skills and self-regulation during play over a four-month play intervention, as well as the association between these measures at the second assessment. The study included 45 children. The individual change profiles of three children identified as experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage were also examined descriptively. After the Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate adjustment, total play-skill scores and total scores for self-regulation during play were statistically significantly higher at T2 than at T1, although significant differences were not found for every assessed area. Higher play-skill scores were strongly associated with higher scores for self-regulation during play at T2. The three child profiles revealed different patterns of change, ranging from stronger coordination and independence to the gradual expansion of pretend play or a continuing need for additional teacher support. The findings are consistent with the cultural-historical theoretical proposition that shared pretend play may provide varied opportunities for participation and for practicing self-regulation during play.
Temporal landmarks, distinct time points that may shape affect, cognition, and self-regulatory behavior, have effects whose magnitude and boundaries remain uncertain. This meta-analysis systematically synthesized findings on the psychological outcomes linked to temporal landmarks in consumption and decision-making contexts. Following a comprehensive literature search and screening, 31 studies with 83 effect sizes (total N = 13,765) were included, encompassing experimental, quasi-experimental, and cross-sectional designs. The primary three-level random-effects model with study-clustered CR2 inference indicated a small positive average effect (g = 0.332, 95% CI [0.050, 0.614], p = 0.023). High heterogeneity (I2 = 90.8%) indicates that this pooled estimate is a context-dependent average tendency rather than a stable or broadly generalizable effect. Excluding nine studies with methodological concerns yielded a similar positive estimate (g = 0.395). Beginning and special-event temporal landmarks had positive subgroup averages, whereas the effect of ending temporal landmarks was uncertain. Longer time spans were stronger only in unadjusted analyses, and cultural moderation appeared only in a small subset of special-event effects; neither pattern was robust in multivariate meta-regression. These findings support a cautious psychological account centered on temporal cognition, self-representation, and goal regulation.
Financial decisions are shaped by the body as much as by the mind. This paper links transient visceral states, such as hunger, thirst, fatigue, and pain, to the influence of socially transmitted signals. Existing work treats these as independent influences. We argue that they interact. By degrading the capacity for independent evaluation, visceral states raise reliance on the evaluations of others. Drawing on constructionist accounts of emotion, social decision neuroscience, and dual-process models, we explain why this amplification is specific to social cues rather than to salient cues in general. Five propositions follow, each with a discriminating prediction. Mindfulness and self-regulation enter as tests of the mechanism, not as remedies.
With the recent advances in technology, AI painting tools have become a mainstream part of digital creation. However, limited research has examined students' dependence on AI-powered drawing tools. Therefore, this study uses college students as a case study to analyze the key factors influencing dependence on AI painting tools. Drawing on the I-PACE model, we constructed a dependence model for AI painting tools. The model incorporates creative pressure, self-efficacy, positive experience, cognitive inertia, and information processing dependence. The study employs a mixed-methods analytical approach combining structural equation modeling (SEM) and artificial neural networks (ANN), and is based on 320 valid questionnaires from university students in China. The SEM results showed positive correlations between creative pressure, positive experience, cognitive inertia, information processing dependence, and AI painting tool dependence. No significant correlation was found between self-efficacy and dependence on AI painting tools. According to the ANN findings, information-processing dependence was the most important predictor of dependence on AI painting tools (normalized importance = 100%), followed by cognitive inertia (80.6%), creative pressure (33.6%), and positive experience (20.1%). These empirical findings provide new insights and evidence into college students' reliance on AI painting tools. Based on this, it is recommended to address students' AI dependence, promote a shift from tool dependence to rational application, and ultimately achieve human-machine collaborative development.
