Between 2005 and 2009 and especially in 2011 and 2012, we studied the flora and partly vegetation of the Zala Gorge (Dinaric phytogeographical region, research area 403.2 ha). We divided the area under discussion into 40 units. We recorded all present taxa in each of them during different seasons. The results of floristic observations are shown by units, altitudinal belts and stream banks. We tested both floristic and ecological similarities between units by mathematicalstatistical methods. After analysis of groups of phytosociologic, chorological and plant life forms, we tested their density statistically by altitudinal belts and stream banks. Altogether, we recorded 503 taxa, 122 (24 %) of which were observed for the first time. The particularities of the Zala Gorge's flora are three endemic taxa, the long-known endemic species Primula carniolica now listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU FFH Directive, rare endemic species Scabiosa hladnikiana and recently described stenoendemic taxon Heliosperma veselskyi subsp. iskense, numerous Alpine, southeast-Alpine-Illyrian, southeast-European and other protected and threatened taxa. The results of the floristic and partly vegetation investigations show unique floristic and vegetational diversity of the Zala Gorge, which is distinguished floristically and ecologically from the recently described Iski vintgar. The new described syntaxa are: Scabioso hladnikianae Caricetum sempervirentis, Valeriano saxatilis-Molinietum arundinaceae, Omphalodo-Fagetum aretosum maculatae, -luzuletosum luzuloidis, -mercurialetosum perennis with variants Festuca altissima, Hordelymus europaeus and Ctenidium molluscum, -homogynetosum sylvestris, -cardaminetosum pentaphylli with variants Fraxinus excelsior and Geranium nodosum, Ostryo carpinifoliae-Piceetum and Bazzanio-Abietetum huperzietosum selaginis.
Primerjali smo postopke za ocenjevanje volumna debeljadi jelke na podlagi Huberjevega, Smalianovega in Newtonovega obrazca. Podatke za primerjavo smo dobili z interpolacijo kubicnih zlepkov na podlagi merjenja posekanih dreves. Newtonov in Huberjev postopek sta bila najnatancnejsa pri ocenjevanju volumnovstarih jelk (starost do 200 let, povprecni premer 59 cm). Na podlagi izracunanih volumnov smo ocenjevali volumne stojecih dreves v sklopu gozdne inventure. Slovenske Coklove tarife (1959) so se kljub svoji preprosti zasnovi izkazale s sprejemljivo natancnostjo (povprecno odstopanje v odstotkih od povprecnega volumna < 1 %, R2=0.87). Delež pojasnjene variabilnosti volumnov dreves se je povecal za 5 % pri dvovhodnih deblovnicah in za 11 % pri triparametrskih volumenskih funkcijah.
In Slovenia, data on forest area are obtained within the framework of forest management planning and data of the actual agriculture and forest land use. The article shows the differences in the assessment methodology of forest cover and spatial structure of forests. In accordance with the concept of national forest inventories, the article suggests upgrading of the existing concept of forest inventories which, in the last decade, have been subordinate to forest management areas and differences in the economic role of forests. Based on a systematic sampling design with plots at the intersections of a 1 km grid, we deduced from orthophoto images that between 2006 and 2011 the forest cover in Slovenia was 61.1±0.7%. The article shows restrictions of orthophoto images usage and statistic concept of assessment, where the assessment subjects are groups of forest site types at the national level.
Ksilit je litotip lignita, ki ga poznamo predvsem kot kurivo. Les, iz katerega je nastal, je v obdobju skoraj dveh milijonov let doživel drasticne spremembe, struktura lesa pa je delno se prepoznavna. Ksilit po videzu pogosto spominja na lesne vrste s temno jedrovino. Opravili smo karakterizacijo ksilita z vidika anatomije lesa, iz katerega je nastal, raziskali njegovo ohranjenost in dolocili osnovne fizikalne znacilnosti. Prepoznali smo osnovno tkivo iz traheid, enoredno in homocelularno trakovno tkivo, taksodioidne piknje v križnih poljih in obilico aksialnega parenhima z vkljucki. To nakazuje, da je ksilit nastal iz lesa golosemenk (iglavcev) iz družine Taxodiaceae (taksodijevke) ali Cupressaceae (cipresovke). Barvnometricno je ksilit v sistemu CIELab* primerljiv z jedrovino lesa ebenovine ali wengeja. Prouceni ksilit je imel gostoto v absolutno suhem stanju 1216 kg/m3, zaradi velikega volumenskega skrcka (v povprecju 28.2 %) paje bila srednja osnovna gostota samo 873 kg/m3. Celotni linearni skrcki so veliki, kar se kot posledica kaže v neugodnih kazalnikih dimenzijske stabilnosti (qT = 0.65 %/%, qR = 0.30 %/%). Nadpovprecno visoke so tudi ravnovesne vlažnosti ksilita v procesu desorpcije, sorpcijska kapaciteta v procesu adsorpcije pa je podobna kot pri lesnih vrstah z visoko gostoto. Sorpcijski model GAB se je izkazal kot primeren za izravnavo sorpcijskih podatkov.
Comparisons of stem volume estimation techniques were performed based on equations of Huber, Smalian and Newton, and a cubic spline interpolation of points along the silver fir tree stems. Results indicate that Newton`s and Huber`s equations were the most accurate in determining volumes of old silver fir trees (age up to 200 years and average dbh 59 cm). The obtained tree volumes were the basis for the standing timber estimation in the forest inventory. Despite their rather simple structure, the Slovene Cokl (1959) tariff functions proved to be sufficiently accurate (average residual in percentage of the mean volume < 1%, R2=0.87). The proportion of the individual tree volume variance explained increased by 5 % for standard two-entry volume tables and by 11% for threeparameter volume functions.
The long-term dynamics of silver fir in mixed silver fir-European beech forests in Slovenia was studied in three geographically dislocated study areas, i.e. Leskova dolina, Trnovo and Jelovica. In the study, archival data on forest stands for the past century were used to create the GIS database, which included data for the periods 1912-2004 for the Leskova dolina study area, 1897-2003 for the Trnovo study area, and 1899-2002 for the Jelovica study area. In the observed period, substantial changes in diameter structure of silver fir and its proportion in stand volume were recognized. In Leskova dolina and Trnovo, the silver fir population was ageing, while in Jelovica it rejuvenated. In Leskova dolina and Trnovo, the silver fir proportion in stand volume decreased in the observed period, indicating its reciprocal replacement with European beech. The analyses of regeneration and recruitment designated different future potential of silver fir in the study areas. The found dynamics of silver fir is underpinned by a complex array of influential factors, notably past forest use, the impact of large ungulates, and site conditions.
Spontaneous afforestation is one of the biosystemic landscape change processes affecting landscape functioning. The process of overgrowing is highly dynamic, and the temporal dimension of changes in landscape structure can be of key importance for evaluating habitat suitability. A detailed study was carried out in the area of 19.52 km 2 within the Pivka municipality, where land use is a mixture of traditional farmland, forests, and extended areas of abandoned former farmland with natural re-growth. In addition, this area is highly important for two bird species: the Barred Warbler (Sylvia nisoria) and the Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio). Both species are sensitive to forest spreading and prefer a mixture of extensive meadows with shrubs and hedgerows as their most suitable habitat. Digital BW orthophotos from the 1975 – 2000 period and colour digital orthophotos from 2009 have been used for on screen digitizing of the EUNIS habitat classes. Indicators of landscape changes were derived from temporal based difference in the landscape structure (different structural indicators based on patch size, shape, distances and patch dynamics). All the details obtained were evaluated based on Earth observation data and GIS supported methods. The most valuable parts of the area for both species are, from a biodiversity point of view, the core forest areas and mixture of meadows with shrubs and hedgerows.
To check the reliability of macroscopic (ocular) assessment of the age of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) obtained by ocular inspection of teeth eruption and wear (done by hunters or hunter commissions), a validation of the precision of these assessments was carried out on a representative sample set, i.e. a total 2008-annual cull of red deer in the entire Slovenia. The reliability of ocular age assessment test was performed by cutting/grinding of the first mandibular molar (M1) and counting the incremental layers of dental cementum on 821 samples of adults (aged from two to twenty-two years). The ocular age assessment of adult red deer (regardless of sex) was biased with a large error (maximum deviation between both assessments: nine years). With both methods, the same animal age was established in 24.5% of cases, and with the age of the animals the reliability of ocular assessment declined. Ages of hinds and younger stags were both under-assessed and over-assessed; however, ages of older stags were generally over-assessed. Out of 426 analysed stags, 142 (33.3%) were categorized in another age category as found by counting annuli in tooth cementum. This raises doubts about the reliability of the current categorization of adult red deer stags into three age categories (2–4 years old, 5–9 years old, and 10+ years old, respectively); indeed, precise (on a yearly basis) ages of adult stags are impossible to be identified by routine age assessment, such as the inspection of teeth wear
Xylite is a lithotype of lignite, mainly used for fuel. The wood from which it was formed in a long term process (duration ca. 2 millions of years) was subjected to drastic changes. We conducted anatomical characterization of xylite, evaluated preservation of wood from which it was formed, defined its basic physical properties, and compared it with modern wood. We recognized ground tissue composed of tracheids, uniseriate and homocellular rays, taxodioid like crossfield pits, and abundant axial parenchyma with inclusions. The observed features are typical of coniferous wood species of the Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae families. Colourimetric properties of xylite in CIE Lab* system are comparable to those of heartwood of ebony or wenge. The xylite had high oven dry density (1,216 kg/m3), but due to very high volumetric shrinkage (28.2 % on average), its basic density was much lower (873 kg/m3). Total linear shrinkage was considerable in all anatomical directions. Consequently it was characterized by low dimensional stability (qT = 0.65 %/%, qR = 0.30 %/%). The equilibrium moisture content (EM C) in desorption process was high, and that of adsorption was comparable to EM Cs of high density wood species. GAB sorption model proved to be appropriate for fitting the data obtained in the sorption process.
The first exploration of climate signal in tree-rings of Black pine (P. nigra Arnold), using minimum blue intensity method, is presented. Sampled trees were growing on site Kojnik (Slovenia). For resin extraction and scanning, 5 mm thick cores were prepared. Whole tree-ring widths were measured, as well as the width and density of early- and latewood. To remove age trend and influence of non-climatic factors, raw measurements were standardized using spline function. In density measurements, highly significant correlation values were calculated between May-June summed precipitation and earlywood density (r = 0.64, p<0.001), while maximum latewood density correlates the best with mean June-August temperature (r = 0.42, p<0.01). In width measurements, the highest correlation was calculated between tree-ring width and mean June-August temperature (r = -0.62, p<0.001).
Izvlecek Za ugotavljanje zanesljivosti makroskopskih (okularnih) ocen starosti navadnega jelena/jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.) na podlagi pregleda razvojne stopnje in obrabljenosti zob smo na reprezentativnem, tj. celotnem enoletnem (2008) vzorcu odvzema jelenjadi na obmocju celotne Slovenije opravili preveritev ocen starosti, podanih s strani lovcev oz. kategorizacijskih komisij. Preizkus zanesljivosti smo napravili z metodo rezanja/brusenja prvega meljaka (M1) in stetjem prirastnih plasti zobnega cementa, in sicer na 821 vzorcih zob odraslih živali (starost: od dveh do dvaindvajset let). Preizkus skladnosti obeh ocen je pokazal, da so z okularnim ocenjevanjem pridobljeni podatki o starosti odraslih živali (ne glede na spol) obremenjeni z veliko napako (najvecji odklon: devet let). Z obema metodama je bila starost živali na leto natancno enako dolocena v 24,5 % primerov; s starostjo živali se je zanesljivost okularnega ocenjevanja zmanjsevala. Starosti kosut in mlajsih jelenov so bile z okularnim ocenjevanjem tako podcenjene kot precenjene, starosti starejsih jelenov pa so bile praviloma precenjene. Izmed 426 analiziranih jelenov jih je bilo kar 142 (33,3 %) uvrscenih v drugo starostno kategorijo, kot je pokazala metoda stetja letnih prirastnih plasti zobnega cementa, kar zbuja pomisleke o smiselnosti trenutno veljavne kategorizacije odraslih jelenov v tri starostne kategorije, ki jih je z rutinskimi metodami ocenjevanja starosti nemogoce zanesljivo prepoznati. Kljucne besede: navadni jelen (Cervus elaphus L.), ocenjevanje starosti, obraba zob, spodnja celjustnica, (pred)meljaki, plasti
The aim of this study was to monitor the test plantation of fast-growing tree species. With the measurements carried out on selected plantation, the production potential of two different clones (Salix sp., clone Tordis and clone Inger) as an alternative energy source was determined. The measurements were performed three years in a row. Growing stocks of Inger and Tordis clones in the second year of coppice growth (2011) were 7.98 m3/ha and 10.57 m3/ha, respectively. The increment between the first and second year of coppice growth of Inger and Tordis clones were 6.40m3/ha and 8.54m3/ha, respectively. The amount of biomass yield produced in the second year of coppice growth for Inger and Tordis clones were 4.58 t atro/ha and 3.49 t atro/ha, respectively, indicating an improvement of biomass yield compared to the previous year.
In Slovenia, data on forest area are obtained within the framework of forest management planning and data of the actual agriculture and forest land use. The article shows the differences in the assessment methodology of forest cover and spatial structure of forests. In accordance with the concept of national forest inventories, the article suggests upgrading of the existing concept of forest inventories which, in the last decade, have been subordinate to forest management areas and differences in the economic role of forests. Based on a systematic sampling design with plots at the intersections of a 1 km grid, we deduced from orthophoto images that between 2006 and 2011 the forest cover in Slovenia was 61.1±0.7%. The article shows restrictions of orthophoto images usage and statistic concept of assessment, where the assessment subjects are groups of forest site types at the national level.
Between 2005 and 2009 and especially in 2011 and 2012, we studied the flora and partly vegetation of the Zala Gorge (Dinaric phytogeographical region, research area 403.2 ha). We divided the area under discussion into 40 units. We recorded all present taxa in each of them during different seasons. The results of floristic observations are shown by units, altitudinal belts and stream banks. We tested both floristic and ecological similarities between units by mathematicalstatistical methods. After analysis of groups of phytosociologic, chorological and plant life forms, we tested their density statistically by altitudinal belts and stream banks. Altogether, we recorded 503 taxa, 122 (24 %) of which were observed for the first time. The particularities of the Zala Gorge's flora are three endemic taxa, the long-known endemic species Primula carniolica now listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU FFH Directive, rare endemic species Scabiosa hladnikiana and recently described stenoendemic taxon Heliosperma veselskyi subsp. iskense, numerous Alpine, southeast-Alpine-Illyrian, southeast-European and other protected and threatened taxa. The results of the floristic and partly vegetation investigations show unique floristic and vegetational diversity of the Zala Gorge, which is distinguished floristically and ecologically from the recently described Iski vintgar. The new described syntaxa are: Scabioso hladnikianae- Caricetum sempervirentis, Valeriano saxatilis-Molinietum arundinaceae, Omphalodo-Fagetum aretosum maculatae, -luzuletosum luzuloidis, -mercurialetosum perennis with variants Festuca altissima, Hordelymus europaeus and Ctenidium molluscum, -homogynetosum sylvestris, -cardaminetosum pentaphylli with variants Fraxinus excelsior and Geranium nodosum, Ostryo carpinifoliae-Piceetum and Bazzanio-Abietetum huperzietosum selaginis.
Skoda, povzrocena na domacih živalih, je ena glavnih težav pri ohranitvenem upravljanju z volkom (Canis lupus). Skodo se pogosto poskusa zmanjsati z odstrelom volkov. V pricujoci raziskavi smo analizirali ucinke legalnega odstrela volkov na obseg skode v Sloveniji ter pripravili pregled podobnih raziskav iz tujine. V letih 1995-2009 je bilo legalno odstreljenih 51 volkov in zabeleženih 2221 primerov napadov volkov na domace živali. S statisticnimi analizami nismo ugotovili nobenih vplivov odstrela volkov na visino skode. Ucinkov odstrela ni bilo zaslediti niti tedaj, ko smo med seboj primerjali najbolj ekstremna leta. Nasi rezultati se ujemajo z izsledki tujih raziskav, ki prav tako opozarjajo, da (v nasprotju s splosnim prepricanjem!) trajnostni lov volkov ni ucinkovit ukrep za zmanjsanje skode. Odstrel postane ucinkovit sele, ce z njim iztrebimo celo populacijo ali odstranimo vecino volkov iz vecjega obmocja. Ker je skoda na drobnici v Sloveniji resen problem in ker odstrel volkov ocitno nima želenega ucinka, priporocamo, da se v prihodnje napori in sredstva osredotocijo v bolj ucinkovite ukrepe.
Conversion from age-class forestry to close-to-nature forest management calls for new ways to describe and communicate long-term goals for stand development with forest owners, workers and managers, as well as stakeholders. Further, it is crucial to integrate goals and methods of close-to-nature forestry into education and training. In Denmark, Forest Development Types (FDT), illustrated by use of profile diagrams, has proved a useful concept forcommunicating such novel long-term goals thus being instrumental in facilitating and supporting dialogue and participation in planning processes. The concept has already been applied to 120,000 ha of state owned forests and used by the municipality of Aarhus - Denmark's second largest city - as part of a participatory planning process in agreeing upon long-term goals for 1,800ha of forest in and adjacent to the city. Further, the concept of forest development types is used as a planning and design tool for forest landscape restoration in teaching at the international master course Urban Woodland Design and Management at the University of Copenhagen. Drawing upon experiences gained from these actions, the paper describes and discusses the concept of Forest Development Types as a tool easing social learning between research and practice, promoting public involvement, and facilitating professional learning around close-to-nature forest management at the university level.
Natural processes or human activities affect environmental conditions, as reflected in the structure of the communities and the level of ectomycorrhizalfungi. The aim of the study was to determine the potential impacts of several temperature regimes of air and soil (substrate) on the occurrence and species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi in symbiosis and in the substrate. For this purpose, we analyzed the occurrence of types of ectomycorrhizae on beech seedlings in rhizotrons exposed to four different environmental temperature conditions: 1) air 15-25°C, 2) air 15-25°C in combination with cooling of roots for 5°C, 3) elevated air temperature from 30-50°C, and 4) ambiental conditions (air temperature in Ljubljana). Types of ectomycorrhizae were identified with a combined approach of anatomical morphological characterisation and with analysis of molecular markers (ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2 ribosomal region in rDNA). We identified a total of 6 types of ectomycorrhizae on 51 root tips on 40 beech seedlings. The diversity of ectomycorrhizal types was the highest in terms of near-optimal growth conditions of beech. Most similar as far as species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi are concerned were the experiments with air temperature of 15-25°C with or without cooling of the root system. The commonest ectomycorrhizal species was Hebeloma sacchariolens, which was also the most commonly seen species in fine roots of dead plants. Selected species of ectomycorrhizal fungi were further substantiated with DGGE method in all analyzed substrate samples.
Livestock depredations are one of the main challenges in the management of thegrey wolf (Canis lupus) and culling of the wolves is a measure often used in an attempt to reduce damages. In the present study we analyzed effects of the legal wolf culling on livestock depredations in Slovenia and made a reviewof similar studies from other regions. 51 wolves were legally culled and2,221 attacks on livestock were recorded in Slovenia in 1995-2009. Our analysis did not show any effects of the culling on the number of depredationsduring the study period. No effects were detected even when the most extreme years were compared. Our results are in agreement with those fromother studies that showed that sustainable hunting of wolves is not an effective measure to reduce live-stock depredations. Wolf removal becomes efficient only when wolves are completely exterminated or when the majority ofwolves are removed from a large area. Because depredation of small live-stock in Slovenia presents a serious problem and since wolf culling does not seem to be efficient, we recommend that more attention and resources should be focused on more effective measures.
