Understanding the dynamics and mechanisms of local adaptation in natural populations provides the basis for predicting responses to environmental changes, including those associated to global climate change. European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is one of the most economically and ecologically important deciduous trees in Europe. Nevertheless, little is known about its genomic adaptive diversity and adaptive potential. Genetic differentiation in beech sites associated with environmental adaptation was assessed by genotyping 1384 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in candidate genes. The study included 153 beech individuals from 12 populations located in Italy, Slovenia, and Croatia, with diverse bio-geoclimatic conditions. PCA-based and the Fst-based method of differentiation (PCAdapt and LEA) and two different Environmental Association Analysis approaches (Latent Factor Mixed Model and Samβada) were used to identify loci with significant correlations with bioclimatic indicators. The results obtained in this study allowed us to identify signature of regional and local environment adaptation. Specific patterns of local adaptation were observed for each studied population. We identified allelic variants associated with the response to precipitation fluctuations and drought periods during the growing season. Particularly interesting is the observation of differences in the presence and effect of allelic variants among different sites, likely due to adaptation to the local environment and the different silvicultural history of each observed population.

Local survival of forest tree populations under climate change depends on existing genetic variation and their adaptability to changing environments. Responses to selection were studied in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) under field conditions. A total of 1087 adult trees, seeds, 1-year-old seedlings and established multiyear saplings were genotyped with 16 nuSSRs. Adult trees were assessed for phenotypic traits related to growth, phenology and reproduction. Parentage and paternity analyses were used to estimate effective female and male fecundity as a proxy of fitness and showed that few parents contributed to successful regeneration. Selection gradients were estimated from the relationship between traits and fecundity, while heritability and evolvability were estimated using mixed models and the breeder's equation. Larger trees bearing more fruit and early male flowering had higher total fecundity, while trees with longer growth season had lower total fecundity (directional selection). Stabilizing selection on spring phenology was found for female fecundity, highlighting the role of late frosts as a selection driver. Selection gradients for other traits varied between measurement years and the offspring cohort used to estimate parental fecundity. Compared to other studies in natural populations, we found low to moderate heritability and evolvability for most traits. Response to selection was higher for growth than for budburst, leaf senescence or reproduction traits, reflecting more consistent selection gradients across years and sex functions, and higher phenotypic variability in the population. Our study provides empirical evidence suggesting that populations of long-lived organisms such as forest trees can adapt locally, even at short-time scales.

Marina Milović , Saša Orlović , Tine Grebenc , Marko Bajc , Branislav Kovačević , Hojka Kraigher (2) Ectomycorrhizal communities are rarely studied on seasonal basis, especially in poplar plantations. In this study we analysed the ectomycorrhizal community in a mature twenty-year-old white poplar (Populus alba L.) plantation during four consecutive seasons. Using morpho-anatomical and molecular identification 30 taxa of ectomycorrhizal fungi were recorded of which 15 were identified to the species level, 12 to the genus level, 2 to the family, and one morphotype of ectomycorrhizae remained unidentified. The most abundant among identified ectomycorrhizal fungi were: Inocybe griseovelata, Inocybe splendens, Tuber rufum, and Tomentella sp. 2, which together represented up to 50% of all ectomycorrhizal root tips. The number of ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa and the percentage of vital ectomycorrhizal root tips were highest in winter and spring, respectively. The diversity indices of ectomycorrhizae, number of vital ectomycorrhizal root tips, and total fine roots in the studied poplar plantation did not differ between seasons. Ectomycorrhizal fungi belonging to Inocybaceae family and the short-distance exploration strategy were dominant in all four seasons. On the other hand, the abundance of ectomycorrhizal root tips belonging to the medium-distance exploration strategy type was significantly higher in spring in comparison with autumn and winter.

Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) reaches its southernmost limit in the mountainous regions of south Serbia and Bulgaria. The species is a regionally important timber species for the wood industry and a significant host for various ectomycorrhizal fungi, including edible species. We analysed ectomycorrhizal community and fine root parameters of high continental / subalpine Norway spruce stands at three sites (Stara planina, Kopaonik, Tara) located in protected areas in Serbia. In addition, we assessed the potential effects of altitude and growing season on the ectomycorrhizal diversity and fine root parameters. Using standardised sampling in combination with morpho-anatomical and molecular identification of ectomycorrhizae, we recorded 29 different anatomorphotypes. None of the identified fungi belonged to commercial edible fungal species. Compared to other Norway spruce ectomycorrhiza studies in central Europe, sites in Serbia exhibited lower species diversity and different dominant species composition, with Cenococcum spp. and Russula spp. as the dominant ectomycorrhizal fungi. A number of ectomycorrhizal types and the value of the species richness index differed between Stara planina and Tara in the autumn, but the influence of site and season on the studied diversity indices was not significant. The total number of fine roots increased in the spring, while percentage of vital ectomycorrhizal root tips increased in the autumn. This study was the first examination of Norway spruce ectomycorrhizal communities at the edge of the natural geographical range of the species.

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is commercially and ecologically important tree species in Central European forests but its intra-specific variability in drought and temperature tolerance might endanger its future distribution in Europe. Beech phenological and growth traits have been studied in large-scale international beech provenance trials, yet the growth and turnover of its fine roots (FR) has not been included among the observations. FR growth dynamics and FR architectural traits of three beech provenances in the international beech provenance trial Straza/Kamenski hrib, established in Slovenia in 1998, and from a natural beech regeneration site growing at its border, were studied from 2007 to 2010. We studied FR biomass using soil cores (SC), root production using ingrowth soil cores (IC), and root longevity using minirhizotrons (MR). Significant differences in FR biomass (live and dead) between the provenance P37 and other provenances were discovered in SC, FR biomass of P37 being significantly higher than FR biomass of latter, which could be connected with overall excellent growth performance of P37 due to favourable environmental conditions at trial. Values of specific root length (SRL) in IC varied significantly among P37 and P54. The turnover rates in IC were at the end of the experiment close to MR results. Median MR-based longevities of FR varied between 625 and 934 days. Survival curve of the slowest growing provenance (considering its aboveground characteristics) was significantly different from the other two, median longevities of the latter being higher. Death of FR, older than two years, occurred most likely in the winter. Our results suggest that there are significant differences in FR longevity among provenances, which might contribute to their adaptation to future environmental conditions. Furthermore, the calculated annual C investment into FR growth per ha differs up to twofold between provenances, contributing to different C dynamics of their future stands.

The chapter gives an overview of the development of forestry in Slovenia in the light of managing and conserving forest genetic resources. Special attention is given to the description of the legislative framework, the international collaboration, the extent and functioning of the Slovenian forest gene bank, forest genetic monitoring as the necessary precondition of managing and conserving forest genetic resources in the changing climates, and the Slovenian forest genetic resources programme.

Potreba po vzorčenju v drevesnih krošnjah je prisotna v številnih panogah znotraj bioloških znanosti, npr. v gozdarstvu, botaniki, fitopatologiji idr. V tem prispevku smo pregledali značilnosti uveljavljenih načinov vzorčenja v drevesnih krošnjah in pregledali stanje tehnike na področju vzorčevalnikov nameščenih na brezpilotnih letalnikih. Predstavili smo patentiran sistem Lucanus za vzorčenje iz drevesnih krošenj z brezpilotnimi letalniki, ki je plod lastnega razvoja, in ga primerjali z uveljavljenimi načini vzorčenja in konkurenčnim sistemom vzorčenja z brezpilotnimi letalniki. Na podlagi primerjave smo ugotovili, da sistem Lucanus in koncept vzorčenja z brezpilotnimi letalniki v veliki meri odpravljata pomanjkljivosti uveljavljenih načinov vzorčenja iz drevesnih krošenj saj je njegova uporaba varnejša za vzorčevalca, vzorčenje je natančno, selektivno in hkrati ne povzroča nepotrebnih poškodb vzorčenih dreves. Ključne pomanjkljivosti sistema Lucanus so zahteva po visoki izurjenosti upravljalca in relativno kratka avtonomija. Ključne besede: vzorčenje, drevesne krošnje, patent, drone, UAV, robotska roka, daljinsko upravljanje, EUFORINNOCollection of samples in tree canopies is a common requirement within a variety of disciplines e.g., forestry, botany, phytopathology, etc. Established approaches to collecting samples in tree canopies and state of the art in the field of sampling in tree canopies with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) were reviewed. A novel and patented UAV based sys- tem for sampling in tree canopies, Lucanus, was presented and its capabilities compared to the established sampling approaches and a competitive UAV based system. Based on this comparison it was concluded that Lucanus, and UAV based approach to sampling in tree canopies in general, largely overcomes the shortcomings of the established sampling approaches as it offers greater safety for the operator, increased selectivity and accuracy, and reduces the level of unnecessary damage of the sampled tree. Key shortcomings of the Lucanus system include the requirement for a highly trained operator and a relatively short endurance. Key words: sampling, patent, tree canopy, drone, UAV, robotic arm, remotely controlled devices, EUFORINNO

We analyzed the community of ectomycorrhizal fungi of an autochthonous white poplar (Populus alba L.) stand in the Kovilj-Petrovaradin marshes (Serbia), and examined its seasonal dynamics. Ectomycorrhizal types were identified by combining morphological and anatomical descriptions with molecular methods (sequencing of ITS region of ribosomal DNA). In two seasons, 20 ectomycorrhizal types were recorded, from which 11 types were identified to the species level, six were determined to the genus level, two types were determined to the family level and one type remained unidentified. Number of ectomycorrhizal types, number of fine roots, percentage of vital mycorrhizal roots, diversity indexes and abundance of exploration types did not differ significantly between autumn and spring. During both seasons, the most abundant types were: Entoloma sp., Tuber maculatum, Cenococcum geophilum, Tuber rufum and Peziza sp. Due to the high variation of the ectomycorrhizal types-based Shannon-Weaver diversity index in poplar stands, and the fact that poplars form dual mycorrhizal association, this index is not recommended as a reliable index for bioindication in poplar.

Mycorrhizal fungi have evolved with their plant partners and enabled them with better growth in stressed and disturbed environments by better nutrient acquisition and protection against pathogens. Any stress or disturbance belowground is reflected first in changes in mycorrhizal community structure. The complex mycorrhizal networks and interactions among mycorrhizosphere organisms regulate the carbon dynamics and stability of forest ecosystems by ‘beneficial interactions’ or ‘collaboration’ rather than by competition—especially under stress and disturbance. This chapter provides an overview of mycorrhizal forms, structure and functions, their vulnerability and their central role in complex mycorrhizosphere interactions. Their disruption may lead to the loss of essential functions of forest ecosystems. The conservation of belowground interactions should be among priority areas of future research and monitoring programmes and strategies.

Secondary metabolites are organic compounds that can be found in both fungi and plants, where they play an important role as defensive and signal molecules, or provide other kinds of advantage in natural selection, but are not directly involved in normal growth, development and reproduction of an organism. When working with DNA techniques, it is the secondary metabolites that most often affect the efficiency of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), either by hindering cell lysis, causing decomposition of nucleic acids or by direct inhibition of DNA-polymerase or reverse transcriptase amplification. The main limiting factor in the application of the PCR technique in routine diagnosis is the preparation of good quality nucleic acids isolates, free of PCR inhibitors. This is especially true in the case of woody plants (Minafra et al., 1992) and soil samples (Tsai and Olson, 1991). Most standard nucleic acids extraction procedures do not always remove contaminating plant polysaccharides or polyphenolic compounds, which can have direct inhibitory effects on subsequent PCR amplification (Demeke and Adams, 1992). Attempts to overcome these limitations included the development of more elaborate nucleic acids extraction methods and PCR, which employ PCR enhancers to eliminate or attenuate the effects of inhibitors. This review is concentrated on removal or attenuation of effects of plant and fungal secondary metabolites from soil, different plant tissues and decayed wood samples due to the significance of this type of research in forestry and wood science.

Secondary metabolites are organic compounds that can be found in both fungi and plants, where they play an important role as defensive and signal molecules, or provide other kinds of advantage in natural selection, but are not directly involved in normal growth, development and reproduction of an organism. When working with DNA techniques, it is the secondary metabolites that most often affect the efficiency of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), either by hindering cell lysis, causing decomposition of nucleic acids or by direct inhibition of DNA-polymerase or reverse transcriptase amplification. The main limiting factor in the application of the PCR technique in routine diagnosis is the preparation of good quality nucleic acids isolates, free of PCR inhibitors. This is especially true in the case of woody plants (Minafra et al., 1992) and soil samples (Tsai and Olson, 1991). Most standard nucleic acids extraction procedures do not always remove contaminating plant polysaccharides or polyphenolic compounds, which can have direct inhibitory effects on subsequent PCR amplification (Demeke and Adams, 1992). Attempts to overcome these limitations included the development of more elaborate nucleic acids extraction methods and PCR, which employ PCR enhancers to eliminate or attenuate the effects of inhibitors. This review is concentrated on removal or attenuation of effects of plant and fungal secondary metabolites from soil, different plant tissues and decayed wood samples due to the significance of this type of research in forestry and wood science.

Natural processes or human activities affect environmental conditions, as reflected in the structure of the communities and the level of ectomycorrhizalfungi. The aim of the study was to determine the potential impacts of several temperature regimes of air and soil (substrate) on the occurrence and species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi in symbiosis and in the substrate. For this purpose, we analyzed the occurrence of types of ectomycorrhizae on beech seedlings in rhizotrons exposed to four different environmental temperature conditions: 1) air 15-25°C, 2) air 15-25°C in combination with cooling of roots for 5°C, 3) elevated air temperature from 30-50°C, and 4) ambiental conditions (air temperature in Ljubljana). Types of ectomycorrhizae were identified with a combined approach of anatomical morphological characterisation and with analysis of molecular markers (ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2 ribosomal region in rDNA). We identified a total of 6 types of ectomycorrhizae on 51 root tips on 40 beech seedlings. The diversity of ectomycorrhizal types was the highest in terms of near-optimal growth conditions of beech. Most similar as far as species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi are concerned were the experiments with air temperature of 15-25°C with or without cooling of the root system. The commonest ectomycorrhizal species was Hebeloma sacchariolens, which was also the most commonly seen species in fine roots of dead plants. Selected species of ectomycorrhizal fungi were further substantiated with DGGE method in all analyzed substrate samples.