Curcumin, as the main active compound in Zingiberaceae plants, turmeric and temulawak, with various health benefits. That active compound generally exists in low concentrations, thus an effective and efficient method is needed to extract these compounds, such as Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE), one of which involves cellulase enzyme. This study aims to use the Enzyme Assisted-Extraction (EAE) method with cellulase enzyme in the extraction of curcumin from turmeric and temulawak plants, and to evaluate the extraction yield and efficiency of extract, comparing the curcumin content in turmeric and temulawak extracts between EAE and conventional maceration extraction method. The research was conducted using a Randomized Block Design (RBD) experiment with variations in temperature (45°, 50°, 55℃), time (1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours), and enzyme concentration of 6%. The research stages included determining the water and ash content in the raw materials, water content in the extracts, extraction using maceration and EAE methods, determination of extract yield, extract purification, phenol screening, analysis of curcumin content using UV-Vis Spectrophotometry, and statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney test. The results showed that the use of cellulase enzyme in the extraction process of turmeric and temulawak successfully increased the extract yield and curcumin content. The highest yield was obtained in turmeric at 34.24%± 0.038, and the highest curcumin content was achieved at a temperature of 45˚C for 2 hours, reaching 56.86% ± 0.090. Meanwhile, in temulawak, the highest yield was 53.11%± 0.385, and the highest curcumin content was obtained at a temperature of 50˚C for 2 hours, reaching 54.10% ± 0.100. There was an increase in curcumin content in turmeric and temulawak EAE extract compared to the conventional maceration extraction method. Statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney test (p < 0.05,) indicating a significant difference between the EAE and conventional maceration extraction method.
Oxidative stress and inflammation are closely linked pathological processes. Although non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are effective, their use is associated with gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and renal side effects, highlighting the need for safer alternatives. Jamu, an Indonesian traditional medicine, is widely used, yet scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and safety remains limited. The objective of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of four different Indonesian jamu brands available for purchase on e-commerce platforms in Indonesia, and examine their correlation with the total phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids content in those jamu. The anti-inflammatory activity of jamu was assessed in vitro by evaluating its ability to stabilize red blood cell membranes and inhibit protein denaturation, using diclofenac sodium as a positive control. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using the 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, with ascorbic acid as the standard antioxidant. Total phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids contents were determined spectrophotometrically and expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE), rutin equivalents (RE), and berberine equivalents (BE) per gram of jamu extract, respectively. The correlations were evaluated based on multiple regression and Pearson correlation analysis using 99% confidence level. The aqueous extracts of Jamu A, B, C, and D were able to stabilize red blood cell membranes, inhibit protein denaturation, and exhibit free radical scavenging activity. Among the extracts, Jamu B demonstrated the lowest IC50 value, indicating the most effective anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties followed by Jamu A, Jamu D, and Jamu C. These activities were significantly correlated with their total phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids content (p < 0.01).
Oxidative stress, which arises by an imbalance among the formation of free radicals and the body's antioxidant defenses, is a pivotal factor in the pathogenesis of numerous degenerative abnormalities, comprising cardiovascular abnormality. Flavonoids, that are natural chemicals by antioxidant capabilities, have been identified as potential agents for protection against the adverse impacts of oxidative stress. The objective of this study was to ascertain the flavonoid substance of Apium graveolens and Orthosipon stamineus extracts and their antioxidant activity. The technique comprising qualitative and quantitative phytochemical tests to decide the flavonoid substance of the extracts. In addition, bioactive compounds were screened utilizing LC-HRMS, and antioxidant activity was evaluated utilizing the DPPH technique. The outcomes of this study drawn the presence of flavonoid compounds, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins in the Apium graveolens and Orthosipon stamineus extracts. The Orthosipon stamineus extract was found to contain steroid compounds. The screening of flavonoids compounds utilizing LC-HRMS has drawn the presence of the greatest diversity of flavonoid compounds in the Apium graveolens extract. The antioxidant activity assay employed quercetin as the standard, possessing an IC₅₀ value of 3.95 μg/mL. Apium graveolens extract exhibited an IC₅₀ value of 58.86±0.44μg/mL, Orthosiphon stamineus extract drawn an IC₅₀ value of 61.69±0.21 μg/mL, whereas the combined extract yielded an IC₅₀ value of 46.32±0.34 μg/mL. The outcomes indicate that the extract combination shows superior free radical scavenging ability compared to the individual extracts, suggesting its potential to enhance the antioxidant efficacy of bioactive compounds derived by herbal plants.
Mangosteen peel extract (Garcinia mangostana L.) shows strong potential in treating diabetic ulcers. Topical applications via dermal patches enable direct delivery of active compounds while protecting wounds from contaminants, preventing bacterial invasion, and maintaining moisture factors essential for promoting effective wound healing in diabetic patients. The dermal patches of mangosteen peel extract were developed using a combination of EC and PVP K-30 polymers. Previously, the mangosteen peels were extracted utilizing the ultrasound-assisted extraction method. Subsequently, the dermal patches were prepared utilizing solvent casting techniques, employing a combination of ethyl cellulose and polyvinyl pyrrolidone in ratios of 1:3 (F1), 1:2 (F2), and 1:1 (F3). The dermal patches were assessed for their physicochemical properties, including organoleptic characteristics, thickness, weight uniformity, folding endurance, moisture uptake, moisture loss, and pH values. The content of alpha-mangostin was analyzed using UV spectrophotometry, while the interactions between the active ingredient and excipients were examined through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The crystallinity profiles were analyzed using an X-ray diffractometer. Surface morphologies were assessed using scanning electron microscopy. The dermal patches were thin, light yellow, smelled of menthol, uniform in size, and exhibited good folding endurance (>300 folds). The moisture uptake and moisture loss were minimal. The pH values ranged from 6.99 to 7.24. The total xanthone concentrations in patches F1, F2, and F3 were 95.26% ± 0.47, 71.42% ± 1.99, and 78.54% ± 0.47, respectively. It showed no chemical interaction between active ingredients and excipients and had amorphous forms. The surface morphologies displayed smoothness for F1, whereas F2 and F3 exhibited solid spots. It was concluded that formulation F1, which contained ethyl cellulose and polyvinyl pyrrolidone in a 1:3 ratio, was the optimal formulation.
Black garlic is obtained through a controlled fermentation process that alters its color, aroma, and flavor while enhancing its concentration of bioactive compounds. This product is rich in phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, and organosulfur compounds such as S-allyl cysteine, which are known to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. This study aimed to determine the total alkaloid, flavonoid, and phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and acute toxicity profile of black garlic. Black garlic samples were prepared by fermenting Solo garlic for 12 days at 60–70 °C. Alkaloid content was analyzed spectrophotometrically using Bromocresol Green reagent with quinine as the standard, flavonoid content was determined using quercetin, and total phenolic content was measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu method with gallic acid as the standard. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH method, while acute toxicity testing was conducted on male BALB/c mice at doses of 500–5.000 mg/kg BW following OECD/GHS guidelines. The results showed that black garlic contained 301.65 ± 3.436 mg QE/kg alkaloids, 2.190 ± 0.051 mg QE/g flavonoids, and 81.976 ± 1.179 mg GAE/g phenolics. Antioxidant activity was categorized as very strong with an IC₅₀ value of 9.94 ± 0.012 ppm, comparable to Vitamin C (9.92 ± 0.005 ppm). Acute toxicity tests revealed no toxic symptoms or mortality up to 5.000 mg/kg BW, classifying black garlic as practically non-toxic. In conclusion, black garlic is rich in bioactive compounds, demonstrates strong antioxidant activity, and is safe for consumption, making it a potential functional food and health supplement.
Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. is used empirically for various treatments, including maintaining healthy skin. However, adequate research is needed before use for medicinal purposes. This study was proposed to determine the chemical content and antibacterial properties of C. aeruginosa against acne-causing bacteria. Water-steam distillation was applied to distill the essential oil. Its organoleptic, yield, and refractive index were also determined. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was performed to identify the chemical compounds. The antibacterial property against acne-causing bacteria was investigated using the diffusion and microbroth dilution methods. The essential oil of C. aeruginosa had a bitter taste, an aromatic odor, and a brownish color with a yield of 0.66% and a refractive index of 1.4921. GC-MS analysis showed 1,8-cineole (30.72%) as the major compound. The inhibition zone diameter varied based on the test bacteria. The 10% essential oil was better at inhibiting Propionibacterium acnes than Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus epidermidis. The MIC and MBC values of the essential oil against P. acnes were the same at 0.07%. The C. aeruginosa essential oil has the potential to be developed into anti-acne preparations.
Dermatophyte infections caused by Microsporum gypseum and Microsporum canis are common health issues affecting humans and animals. Peppermint leaves (Mentha x piperita L.) contain active constituents such as menthol and menthone, known for their antifungal potency. Authentication of Mentha piperita (peppermint) leaf in this study was performed through chemical profiling. The major constituents identified in peppermint essential oil include menthol, pulegone, isopulegol, limonene, and methylene. The purpose of this study was to examine the potency of peppermint leaf distillation essential oil in inhibiting the growth of M. gypseum and M. canis at concentrations of 25%, 12.5%, 6.25%, 3.125%, 1.562%, 0.781%, 0.390%, and 0.195%. Microdilution standard method was used to examine the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). Antifungal potency was assessed based on medium turbidity, compared to itraconazole as a positive control. Results showed that peppermint essential oil at a concentration of 6.25% and 1.562% inhibited the growth of M. gypseum and M. canis, respectively. Therefore, peppermint leaf essential oil can be recommended as a natural antifungal agent against M. gypseum and M. canis.
Depression is a mental health condition characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest in daily activities, and fatigue. It affects an individual’s ability to function and engage in everyday life. In Indonesia, depression is a growing public health concern. Geographic factors, such as residence (urban vs rural) and regional (West, Central, East Indonesia), may influence the prevalence of depression due to variations in social environment, healthcare access, and stress exposure. This study aims to identify factors associated with depression based on residential and regional location, utilizing secondary data from the 2023 Indonesian Health Survey (SKI) with a descriptive research design and cross-sectional method. This study employed a descriptive, cross-sectional design using data from the 2023 Indonesian Health Survey (SKI). The inclusion criteria were individuals aged 18 and above who self-reported depression. Key variables analyzed included gender, age, residence (urban or rural), and regional location in Indonesia. A Chi-square test was applied to examine the association between depression and geographic factors, with a significance level of p < 0.05. A total of 10,504 subjects with self-reported depression were identified, of which 67.76% were female. The analysis showed a higher depression prevalence among urban residents, 60.78% compared to rural areas, 32.23%. Additionally, depression prevalence was higher in Western Indonesia (60.22%) than in Central and Eastern Indonesia. The analysis revealed a significant association between residence, regional area, and depression in Indonesia, with p-values of 0.001 for all three. Therefore, this study concludes that there is a significant association between self-reported depression, residential and regional location, with urban dwellers exhibiting a higher prevalence of depression (p<0.005). These findings highlight the need for enhanced mental health services in urban areas to address the higher depression rates.
Hypertension is the leading cause of cardiovascular disease in the world and contributes to 10 million deaths every year. Non-adherence is an important factor in uncontrolled hypertension, thus leading to reasons for non-adherence to treatment or medication. This study aims to identify the factors related to adherence to treatment for outpatients at Leuwiliang Regional Hospital, Bogor Regency. This study used a quantitative descriptive approach with cross-sectional data. The study population consisted of all outpatient hypertension patients at Leuwiliang Regional Hospital in 2023. Sampling used the purposive sampling technique with a sample of 312 patients. Data were analyzed descriptively and analytically with the Spearman-rho correlation test. The results showed that the level of adherence among patients with hypertension was mostly moderate (39.7%). Treatment adherence was related to self-motivation (p-value = 0.000), but the relationship was weak, with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.258. The level of knowledge, family support, and role of health workers did not have a significant relationship to the level of adherence. The correlation value between the level of knowledge and the level of adherence had a negative relationship, although it was not significant. These might be due to knowledge, family support, and the role of health workers might not directly influence the level of compliance but might be supported by other variables such as age, gender, education, patient access to health facilities, patient economic level, length of hypertension, economic profile, and patient hypertension level (length of hypertension), but in this study no relationship analysis was carried out.
Osteoarthritis of the knee often requires pharmacological treatments when non-pharmacological methods are insufficient. Yet, these medications can have serious side effects and be costly. Therefore, exploring alternative therapies and herbal remedies becomes a crucial aspect in the management of osteoarthritis. Areca nut is a plant known to possess numerous pharmacological properties. Areca nut (Areca catechu L.) seed extract with 25% ethanol has lipoxygenase enzyme inhibitory activity, one of the mediators of inflammation in the body. This research aimed to evaluate the in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of the topical application of a 25% ethanol extract of areca nut seeds in male white rats with an induced osteoarthritis model. The research employed an experimental pre-post design. Each treatment group consisted of five animals. The induction used in this study was Monosodium Iodoacetate (MIA) with a concentration of 1 mg/200 grams BW. The animals were divided into five groups: positive control (Natrium Diclofenac® Cream), negative control (Vaseline flavum), Treatment I (2.5% extract concentration), Treatment II (5% extract concentration), and Treatment III (7.5% extract concentration). Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA (p<0.05) with Duncan’s post hoc test. The ethanol extract of areca nut seeds displayed an anti-osteoarthritis effect, with the 7.5% concentration providing efficacy nearly equivalent to that of the positive control. This was followed by extract concentrations of 5% and 2.5%.
The pineapple stem, a byproduct of the pineapple plant, contains a high starch content suitable for conversion into the super disintegrant sodium starch glycolate (SSG). The starch content of pineapple stems can be modified into the super-disintegrant sodium starch glycolate (SSG). This study aims to explore the potential of modified pineapple stem starch as SSG, evaluate its physicochemical characteristics, and determine the optimal tablet. Pineapple stem starch was modified into SSG through crosslinking and carboxymethylation. Tablets were then prepared using the wet granulation method, followed by physical evaluations of tablets (weight and size uniformity, disintegration time, hardness, and friability). Four formulations with varying super disintegrant concentrations were tested: F0 (4% imported SSG, control), F1 (2% pineapple stem SSG), F2 (4% pineapple stem SSG), and F3 (6% pineapple stem SSG). The tablet evaluations for all formulations met standard requirements for each test. The study's results concluded that pineapple stem starch can be modified into SSG, exhibiting a faster swelling ability compared to natural starch. The typical functional groups of SSG appear at peaks of 1410 cm-1, 1411 cm-1, and 1415 cm-1. The best formula, F3, which is based on the physical properties of the tablets, has met the requirements with the fastest disintegration time.
Indonesia has a long history of using medicinal plants, but much of this knowledge, especially among groups like the Osing people in East Java, is not well-documented. This study looks at the plants used by the Osing community to treat diarrhea. This research was conducted through interviews with residents of Banjar and Licin Villages in Banyuwangi Regency. The significance and perceived efficacy of each medicinal plant were evaluated using the ethnobotanical indices Use Value (UV) and Fidelity Level (FL). They also did tests to find the active chemicals in the plants. The most common plants for treating diarrhea were Psidium guajava (UV = 2.44) and Piper betle (UV = 1.11). Psidium guajava had the highest FL value (64.7%). Tests have shown that these plants contain essential chemicals. Further analysis confirmed the presence of quercetin and kaempferol, which are known to help alleviate stomach problems. To support these findings, computer-based tests were done, including Lipinski rule prediction, ADMET profiling, and molecular docking. The results showed quercetin binds well (ΔG = -9.72) and has a good RMSD value (1.83 Å). This suggests quercetin could be a good starting point for making antidiarrheal drugs. Overall, the study underscores the significance of traditional knowledge and recommends further research on plant-based treatments for stomach issues.
Oxidative stress, a condition linked to various degenerative diseases, occurs when reactive species build up in the body. These harmful molecules often come by environmental factors like air pollution as well as by unhealthy lifestyle habits. Fortunately, nature gives a defense system: plants produce flavonoids and other phenolic substances that act as natural antioxidants, handling to neutralize reactive species and protecting the body by their damaging effects. The objective of the study was to determine the phytochemical content of extracts of M. oleifera leaf, C. asiatica leaf, and N. sativa Oil and their operation as antioxidants. The study applied both qualitative and quantitative phytochemical tests to measure flavonoid levels in the extracts. Bioactive substances were then identified through GC-MS and LC-HRMS, while antioxidant operation was assessed utilizing the DPPH method. The outcomes were drawn that Moringa oleifera and Centella asiatica extracts contained flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and steroids, while Nigella sativa oil contained terpenoids. Among the three, LC-HRMS screening drawn that Moringa oleifera extract had the highest diversity of flavonoid substances. The outcomes of GC-MS obtained 13 components identified in Nigella sativa oil, one of that was thymoquinone. The antioxidant operation IC50 scores were as follows: 57.943 ± 3.481 µg/mL (M. oleifera), 66.578 ± 1.979 µg/mL (C. asiatica), 56.174 ± 1.604 µg/mL (N. sativa), and 51.128 ± 1.724 µg/mL (polyherbal combination). All the samples demonstrated strong antioxidant operation, and notably, the combination of extracts proved to be more effective than when each to be utilized individually.
The Merdeka plant (Chromolaena odorata L.) is known for its various pharmacological benefits, including gastroprotection, antibacterial, antihyperglycemic effects, and wound healing promotion. To ensure safe use in the community, it is important to evaluate its potential toxicity. This study examined the effects of ethanol extract of Merdeka leaf (C. odorata) on liver function by measuring the levels of serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamic-pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) in male rats (Rattus norvegicus). Twenty-five male Wistar rats were split into five groups: three treatment groups that received ethanol extract at doses of 150 mg/kg BW, 300 mg/kg BW, and 600 mg/kg BW, a negative control group that received 0.5% Na CMC, and a normal control group that received no treatment. For 28 days, the extract was taken orally every day. Following surgery, liver and kidney tissues were removed for histology on day 29, and blood samples were obtained via the aorta. The findings demonstrated that rats administered 600 mg/kg BW of ethanol extract had significantly greater SGOT and SGPT levels than controls (p < 0.05), suggesting that high dose of Merdeka leaf extract may have an impact on kidney and liver functions.
Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) flowers are rich in anthocyanins and organic acids, which contribute to their characteristic red-colored calyx and sour flavor, along with notable biological activities. This study aimed to develop and optimize a functional roselle syrup formulation by incorporating selected spices—cinnamon, cloves, and cardamom—and using xanthan gum and Tween 60 as stabilizing agents. Six formulations (F1–F6) were prepared and evaluated based on their physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant activity, and stability. Among the formulations, F3 (containing 1% xanthan gum and 0.2% Tween 60) showed the most favorable results, with a pH of 2.73, viscosity of 403.3 cP, total anthocyanin content of 67.85 mg/L, and DPPH free radical inhibition of 50.43% and 64.05% at concentrations of 1% v/v and 2% v/v, respectively. Upon reconstitution at a 1:5 ratio, the syrup retained appealing organoleptic qualities, including a bright red color, sweet-sour taste, and herbal aroma. During a 42-day storage study, the syrup maintained stable viscosity and antioxidant activity for up to 21 days, with pH remaining within the acceptable range (2–4) despite a slight increase. However, anthocyanin content showed significant degradation after day 7. These findings highlight the need for further formulation improvement to enhance anthocyanin and antioxidant stability in roselle syrup products.
The limited scientific evidence on the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Polypodium feei roots, despite their traditional use in rheumatism treatment, highlights the need for pharmacological validation. The study investigates the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of Polypodium feei roots, a traditional medicine used to treat rheumatism, in mice and rats with carrageenan-induced paw edema, using acetylsalicylic acid and tramadol as analgesics and diclofenac sodium as an anti-inflammatory. The writhing test results demonstrate that the extract of P. feei roots (EPFR) at dosages of 50 and 100 mg/kgBW lowered the writhing responses of rat significantly (p <0.01). The dose of 100 mg/kgBW provided more protection than acetylsalicylic acid at a level of 65 mg/kgBW. In the hot plate method, the extract increased the latency period significantly (p <0.05) as compared with the control. In the anti-inflammatory examination, the EPFR decreased edema of rat paws induced by carrageenan. The significant effect of the EPFR was shown by the dose of 100 mg/kgBW (p <0.05), but its inhibition was lower than that of a standard agent, diclofenac sodium. This study concluded that the EPFR may have peripherally and centrally analgesic activity and anti-inflammatory activity. This evidence supports the folklore claim of the efficacy of EPFR as traditional medicine for rheumatism.
The preparation of honey-black cumin and Curcuma xanthorrhiza to improve the hematological profile of stunted children is an innovation in utilizing local resources. The primary active components of the supplement, fructose, tymoquinone, and curcumin, have demonstrated a variety of biological activities in the lab. This study aims to determine the effect of consuming honey-black cumin and Curcuma xanthorrhiza on the hematological profile of stunted children. The research method employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre- and post-test, including a control group. The 40 subjects of stunted children were divided into two groups (stunting control and stunting intervention). Univariate analysis examined demographic characteristics, while independent samples t-test and paired samples t-test were used to study numerical data. Results: Statistical analysis of paired sample t-tests revealed that equipping the stunting group with honey-black cumin and Curcuma xanthorrhiza significantly increased lymphocyte count (p <0.001) and decreased neutrophil count (p <0.001). The number of neutrophils and lymphocytes in the intervention stunting group was significantly different (p<0.001) from the control stunting group, according to independent sample t-test findings. Conclusion: A 90-day intervention of honey-black cumin and Curcuma xanthorrhiza improved the levels of leukocyte, lymphocyte, and neutrophil in stunted children.
Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurological disorder that can impact adults aged 65 and beyond. A primary factor contributing to Alzheimer’s is the diminished availability of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brain. Plants from the Lamiaceae family have been believed to possess potential as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEI) that can alleviate the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. This study aims to find possible bioactive compounds from plants of the Lamiaceae family, specifically Salvia officinalis L., Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Collinsonia canadensis L., and Melissa officinalis L., as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors using in silico approaches. Active compounds from the Lamiaceae family were evaluated based on physicochemical properties, toxicity, Gibbs free energy (∆G), inhibition constant (Ki), absorption, excretion, metabolism, distribution, and molecular dynamics. From a total of 1,370 compounds derived from Lamiaceae plants, the compound 3,5,5-Trimethyl-4-[3-[3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl) oxan-2]-yl]oxybut-1-enyl] cyclohex-2-en-1-one (TOC) from Salvia officinalis L. exhibited potential as an AChEI, possessing a molecular weight of 370 Daltons, 4 hydrogen donors, 7 hydrogen acceptors, a Log P partition coefficient of 3.46, a molar refractivity of 100, a Gibbs free energy change (∆G) of -11.2 kcal/mol, an inhibition constant (Ki) of 0.981 μM, and a total energy calculated via Molecular Mechanics Generalized Born Surface Area of 31.381 kcal/mol. In silico, the TOC ligand inhibits acetylcholinesterase to treat Alzheimer's.
Capsules are medicinal preparations wrapped in hard or soft capsule shells. The material for making capsule shells is gelatin obtained from partial hydrolysis of animal skin or bones. One source of gelatin that can be used as a basic material for forming capsule shells is snakehead fish skin. This study aimed to produce capsule shells from snakehead skin, varying the gelatin concentration in the capsule shells, and to assess the drug release properties. The evaluation of the capsule shells included measurements of length, diameter, thickness, weight, volume, disintegration time, swelling degree, and mecobalamin release using a dissolution apparatus in a simulated gastric fluid medium, with mecobalamin levels measured by UV spectrophotometry. The results showed that the snakehead capsule displayed good physical properties. The best swelling degree was observed in formula 2, with a value of 24.59%, which is close to the 27.58% swelling degree of commercial capsules (mecobalamin) at the 10-min. The mecobalamin release test indicated that the capsules from formula 2 released 30.40% of the drug at the 30-min when tested at 278 nm, compared to 33.50% from commercial capsules. Testing at a wavelength of 352 nm for formula 2 was 29.25% compared to commercial mecobalamin capsules at 34.67%. These findings highlight the promising utility of gelatin from snakehead skin in the formulation of effective drug delivery systems.
HAMIN® is a self-emulsifying base composed of a mixture of hydrogenated palm kernel oil and hydrogenated palm kernel stearin. This formulation not only enhances the aesthetic quality of products but also simplifies the manufacturing process, as it eliminates the need for additional emulsifying agents to form a stable cream. Due to these properties, HAMIN® is considered highly suitable for the development of both pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations. Despite its potential applications, no prior research has investigated the optimal ratio of HAMIN® palm fat base to distilled water distilled waterrequired to achieve desirable physical characteristics and drug release properties in cream formulations. Therefore, this study aims to determine the optimum composition of HAMIN® palm fat base and distilled water for the formulation of diphenhydramine hydrochloride cream. The optimization process was conducted using the simplex lattice design (SLD) method, a statistical approach commonly employed to evaluate and optimize multicomponent formulations. The experimental results demonstrated that increasing the concentration of HAMIN® palm fat base had a dominant effect on enhancing the pH, viscosity, adhesion, and stability of the cream. Conversely, a higher concentration of distilled water significantly improved spreadability, extrudability, and drug release flux. These findings indicate that the selection of base composition plays a crucial role in determining the overall performance of the cream formulation. The optimal formulation, as determined through SLD analysis, consisted of 41.667% HAMIN® palm fat base and 48.333% distilled water, achieving a desirability index of 0.649. This composition represents the most balanced formulation in terms of physical stability and drug release, making it a promising candidate for further pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications.
