Concurrent with the first record of the aphid Pachypappa warshavensis (Nasonov, 1894) from mainland Italy in the Emilia-Romagna region, colonies were also identified on ornamental white poplar trees (Populus alba L.) in a public park in Casale Monferrato (Piedmont region) during 2025. Species identity was confirmed by morphological features and molecular characterization using a partial COI mitochondrial gene. The described identity of the insect provides some distinctive biometric data of the sampled population. Our observations extend the known distribution of the species across various European countries. The aphid, belonging to the tribe Pemphigini within the subfamily Eriosomatinae, is an oligophagous taxon with species of Populus as primary hosts. The present study provides an overview of the aphid morphobiological profile to aid its identification, along with an updated list of potential host plants and phytosanitary remarks.
Odonates are well studied globally, yet studies from Jharkhand remain limited. Urbanization-induced habitat modification—such as wetland loss, altered hydrology, water pollution, and removal of riparian vegetation—directly affects Odonata breeding habitats, larval development, and community composition, demonstrating their sensitivity to landscape-level disturbance. The present study documents the diversity and community structure of odonates across seven sites in Saranda Forest, Jharkhand, from March 2024 to March 2025. A total of 61 species belonging to two suborders, Anisoptera (35 species; 57%) and Zygoptera (26 species; 43%), were recorded. Dragonflies (Anisoptera) dominated the assemblage, with Brachythemis contaminata, Crocothemis servilia, and Brachydiplax sobrina emerging as the most abundant taxa, while the damselfly Agriocnemis pygmaea (Zygoptera) was also recorded among the dominant species. Species richness and abundance varied across sites, with Ligirda (28 species) and Karampada (27 species) supporting the highest richness, while Thalkobad (82 individuals) and Beside Koina River (75 individuals) recorded the greatest abundance. Libellulidae was the most dominant family, followed by Coenagrionidae, whereas other families such as Aeshnidae, Gomphidae, and Macromiidae were sparsely represented. Diversity indices revealed high Shannon (2.6-3.2) and Simpson (>0.85) values across sites, indicating well-balanced communities with low dominance. Ligirda exhibited the highest diversity and evenness, while Beside Koina River showed lower evenness due to dominance by a few species. Species accumulation curves suggested sufficient sampling and revealed distinct site-level assemblages influenced by habitat heterogeneity. Analysis of variance confirmed significant variation in abundance across families, with Libellulidae significantly more dominant than other groups, whereas site-level abundance differences were statistically non-significant. The findings underscore the ecological importance of Saranda Forest as a reservoir of odonate diversity, with family-level dominance patterns and habitat heterogeneity shaping community structure.
In the present paper, the new species Pammene bejaiana Trematerra sp.n. (Lepidoptera Tortricidae) collected in Algeria at Akfadou (Béjaia Province) is described. The new species is similar to Pammene trauniana (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775) and Pammene crataegophila (Amsel, 1935), can be distinguished by genitalia characters.
The rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin, has recently emerged as a major invasive pest in Bangladesh, causing severe damage to coconut and a variety of fruit, vegetable, and ornamental crops. The nymphs, particularly the second to fourth instars, are covered with thick waxy secretions and cottony filaments, which reduce insecticide penetration and efficacy. This study evaluated five insecticides applied alone or in combination with two additives, Surf Excel Matic Liquid (SEML) and potassium salts of fatty acids (PSFA), using both direct tank-mix and post-application approaches. Factorial analysis revealed that the main effects of insecticide, additive, and application method were significant, whereas their interactions were not, indicating that each factor independently influenced nymphal mortality. Insecticides applied alone provided limited control, whereas inclusion of additives significantly enhanced mortality, with PSFA consistently outperforming SEML. Post-application resulted in slightly higher nymphal suppression, but direct tank mixing of PSFA with insecticides offers a more practical and efficient field strategy. These findings suggest that additives can substantially improve insecticide efficacy, potentially by altering cuticular properties or increasing uptake. While results were obtained under controlled laboratory conditions, environmental factors such as rainfall, UV degradation, and spray coverage may influence performance in the field, and further studies under diverse agroecological conditions are warranted to validate the practical efficiency of additive-insecticide combinations in integrated pest management programs.
The excessive use of synthetic insecticides in the phytosanitary protection of oil palm poses risks to public health and the environment. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of four (4) biopesticides against Oryctes monoceros, a pest responsible for delayed growth and, in some cases, the death of young oil palm plants. After obtaining larvae and adults from insect rearing, four biopesticides (A, B and C) at different concentrations (3.7×10–3 g/mL, 6.8×10–3 g/mL, and 1.2×10–2 g/mL), and biopesticide D (1.4×10–3 g/mL, 2.7×10–3 g/mL, and 4.8×10–3 g/mL) were first evaluated on Oryctes monoceros larvae. The larvae were exposed to the toxic effects of 100 mL of each prepared solution applied to 500 g of moistened wood sawdust. Among the four biopesticides tested, only biopesticide D, based on azadirachtin, showed high lethal efficacy, causing elevated larval mortality comparable to that of the reference insecticide. The respective lethal dose causing 10% mortality and lethal dose causing 50% mortality (LD50) values of 6.03×10–4±2.46×10–1 g/mL and 2.38×10–3±9.16×10–2 g/mL were lower, indicating higher efficacy. Compared to the reference synthetic insecticide cypermethrin, biopesticide D against adults showed an LD50 and a lethal dose causing 90% mortality (LD90) of 7.04×10–3±7.36×10–2 g/mL and 2.34×10–2±2.11×10–1 g/mL, respectively, while Cypermethrin yielded an LD50 and LD90 of 3.90×10–6±2.58×101 g/mL and 1.49× 10–4±1.75×101 g/mL. These results demonstrate the significant insecticidal activity of the biopesticides tested, particularly biopesticide D, against both larvae and adults of Oryctes monoceros. This product could be used as an alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides in the management of this pest.
Amid the ongoing decline of oak forests across Europe, implementing measures to detect, monitor, and prevent infestations by defoliating insect species has become increasingly urgent. Among these species, Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758) represents one of the most significant threats to oak forests. Adhesive panel traps baited with pheromone lures are commonly used for monitoring, but their non-selective nature leads to unintended captures of non-target insects, including Coleoptera. This study was conducted during the 2023 flight season (June-August) in two outbreak-affected oak stands in southern Romania (Baba Ana and Tatina). Twelve atraDISPAR-baited sticky panels were installed per sample plot, arranged in three replicates of four panels each in a square layout. A total of 1,844 beetles from 21 non-target beetle species belonging to 11 families were collected and classified by feeding preference. Agrilus angustulus (Illiger, 1803) (Buprestidae), one of the species associated with oak decline in Western Europe, was the most abundant among the species identified. Species richness was comparable (13 in Tatina, 12 in Baba Ana), but abundance varied greatly (139 specimens in Tatina vs. 1,705 in Baba Ana). The observed attraction of several secondary pest beetles suggests that adhesive panel traps may serve not only in L. dispar monitoring but also as a potential tool for assessing broader forest health.
The African giant cricket (Brachytrupes membranaceus) is the most consumed species of cricket in Benin. Primarily collected in the wild during the rainy season, B. membranaceus is a seasonal source of animal protein for the population, whose availability and accessibility remain major challenges. This study aimed to determine the growth performance, survival rate, and feed preference of B. membranaceus fed with two different traditional diets. The diet was made up of cassava peelings, cassava stems, cowpea leaves, peanut shells, palm kernel cake, smoked fish waste, and eggshells. The measured parameters were growth, survival, and dietary data. The different diets induced significant variation (p<0.001) in the growth, mortality rate, and yield of the African giant cricket nymphs. The consumption of palm kernel cake, cassava stalks, fish waste, and cowpea leaves by B. membranaceus positively influenced (p<0.001) the crickets’ weight and size gain. A significant reduction in the mortality rate (p<0.001) of African giant crickets was observed with the combination of foods such as cassava peel, cassava stem, fish waste, cowpea leaves, eggshells, and palm kernel cake in their diets. Cassava stems, palm kernel cake, red cowpea leaves, and fish waste could be promoted for the mass rearing of B. membranaceus in Benin.
Research on the order Hemiptera Heteroptera was conducted in the 0.80-hectare active raised bog and its surrounding areas within the Paluaccio di Oga Nature Reserve. Thirty-four species were found in this area, five of which were strictly associated with bog vegetation. It is worth mentioning the rare species Sciocoris umbrinus (Wolff), which is typical of clearings at medium and high altitudes, as well as the Mediterranean species Oxycarenus lavaterae (F.).
Aedes aegypti is the main vector for dengue viruses. Alternative control of this mosquito was proposed because of its resistance to chemical insecticides. The symbiotic bacteria Photorhabdus associated with Heterorhabditid nematodes and Xenorhabdus associated with Steinernematid nematodes may be alternative resources for controlling this mosquito vector. Therefore, the present study evaluated extracts from Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus bacteria against A. aegypti larvae. The larvicidal bioassay was performed according to the World Health Organization guidelines for laboratory and field testing of mosquito larvicides. Survival curves were analyzed to compare the mortality of the A. aegypti larvae between the ethyl acetate extracts and the control group. In addition, high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis was performed to elucidate the natural compounds produced by these bacteria. Among 4 Photorhabdus isolates, the Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. hainanensis (bWT8.5_TH) extracts resulted in the greatest mortality (69%), whereas among 8 Xenorhabdus isolates, the Xenorhabdus stockiae (bWT8.5_TH) extracts resulted in the greatest larvicidal activity against A. aegypti, with 99% mortality after exposure to the 1% extracts for 96 hours. In contrast, at concentrations of 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001% of the extracts, no or less mortality of A. aegypti larvae was detected after exposure to the extracts for 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. A natural compound, xenoamicine, is a common natural compound produced by Xenorhabdus bacteria. Therefore, extracts of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria may be used as biocontrol compounds for killing A. aegypti larvae.
Thrips are among the important pests infecting banana production systems because they have a direct effect on the banana fingers. A prerequisite to the development of any pest management strategy is the correct identification and determination of the pest species attacking crops. A field study was carried out to determine the diversity and abundance of thrips on banana plantations in Embu County, Kenya. The study was conducted in three agroecological zones, namely, Upper Highland UM1, Mid Highland UM2, and Lower Highland UM3 in two seasons in 2015. A total of 878 individual thrips belonging to two families (Thripidae, 12 species, and Phlaeothripidae, one species) were collected and identified. Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) was the most abundant species, with 392 of the total individuals recorded (species dominance = 44.65%) followed by Megalurothrips sjostedti (Trybom) with 250 individuals (species dominance = 28.47%), while Dendrothrips sp. was the least abundant with only one individual recorded (0.11%). F. schultzei, M. sjostedti, F. occidentalis (Pergande), and Haplothrips godweyi (Franklin) were well distributed across the different zones during the two seasons. Overall species diversity was highest in the lower zone Shannon-Weiner (H’=1.654) and Simpson’s diversity index (1-D=0.740) followed by the middle zone with Hʹ=1.620 and 1-D=0.730 while the upper zone had the lowest diversity (H’=1.332) and (1-D=0.623). A high similarity of 0.8-0.82 and 0.67-0.69, according to Jaccard’s and Sørensen’s similarity index, respectively, was reported between all the sites, indicating that all the sites had the same level of similarity in the number of shared species. In conclusion, we report that bananas are infested by a wider array of thrips species than previously thought. F. schultzei and M. sjostedti are the major thrips species infesting bananas in the study area across all seasons and agroecological zones and should be the main targets for pest management interventions.
The nettle caterpillar (Setora nitens) is a major pest affecting oil palm plants and is predominantly found in oil palm plantations in Riau. The predator Sycanus annulicornis Dohrn is a potential natural enemy for controlling S. nitens. This study aims to evaluate the predatory ability of S. annulicornis imago when preying on S. nitens. The research was conducted at the Plant Pest Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Riau University, from March to July 2023. The experiment was designed using a completely randomized design method consisting of three treatments with seven replications. The treatments involved S. annulicornis imago [N1=one male imago, N2=one female imago, and N3=one pair of imago (male and female)], with observation parameters including first and second prey search time, prey handling time, predation ability, and total predation. Results showed that the handling time for one S. nitens by S. annulicornis ranged from 3.86 to 5.14 hours. The treatment involving one pair of S. annulicornis imago was the most effective, as it resulted in the fastest prey search times (0.79 minutes for the first prey and 0.71 minutes for the second prey), as well as the fastest prey handling time (3.86 hours), with a total predation rate of 100% for S. nitens.
Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB) is a serious insect pest of brinjal, causing significant damage and yield loss in Bangladesh. Chemical insecticides having toxic effects are frequently applied to control this pest. The present study was conducted with two insecticides, emamectin benzoate and abamectin individually or in combination with plant-origin azadirachtin to combat BSFB. The insecticides were applied at 7-day intervals using a knapsack sprayer. Though all the insecticides control BSFB, emamectin benzoate 1% + azadirachtin and abamectin 1.8% + azadirachtin were found to be most effective, providing 89.34% and 81.55% shoot infestation reduction, 93.34% and 85.11% fruit infestation reduction (number basis), and 94.91% and 85.27% fruit infestation reduction (weight basis), respectively. The highest marketable yield was obtained from abamectin 1.2% + azadirachtin (2.32-ton ha-1 harvest-1). The same treatment confirmed the highest gross yield (2.72-ton ha-1 harvest-1). However, the highest individual weight of marketable fruit was obtained from abamectin 1.2% + azadirachtin (47.30 g). Therefore, emamectin benzoate 1% + azadirachtin and abamectin 1.8% + azadirachtin can be recommended for BSFB control, while abamectin 1.2% + azadirachtin is recommended for increasing fruit yield. However, further investigation is required.
Alternative habitats to predominant corn and soybean fields may help to stem declines of native lady beetles in central North America, but their relative values to native lady beetles have not been directly compared. The goal of this 2-year study was to compare the abundance and species composition of native agrobiont lady beetles among habitats such as corn, winter grains, prairie, and arboreal tracts across three seasons (late spring, summer, and autumn) in eastern South Dakota, USA. Yellow sticky traps were used to sample a total of 797 individuals and 13 species of lady beetles. Coleomegilla maculata lengi Timberlake was the most abundant species and found predominantly in corn and arboreal habitats. Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville was the second-most abundant species and found mainly in prairie and crop habitats. Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) was sampled only in 2023 in low numbers but preferred arboreal habitat to other habitats. Hippodamia parenthesis (Say) preferred winter grain and prairie habitats over corn and arboreal habitats. Cycloneda munda (Say) preferred corn to other habitats. This study was designed to include habitats that would optimize detection of Hip. tredecimpunctata tibialis Timberlake, which has declined in recent years, but it was not sampled from any of the habitats. Prospects are discussed for conserving native agrobiont lady beetles that prey on crop pests among habitats within agricultural landscapes in eastern South Dakota.
Exportation of snake fruit from Indonesia to China, Australia, and New Zealand has been hindered due to fruit fly infestations (Diptera: Teprithidae). The goal of this study was to identify fruit flies and their parasitoid species from registered snake fruit productions in Turi, Sleman, that have reached packaging houses during early rainy and dry seasons. Fruit fly species were morphologically identified from collected rejected or damaged snake fruit. Parasitization was calculated by dividing the number of emerging parasitoid species by the total number of parasitoid and fruit fly individuals. The population of fruit flies and parasitoids was then compared to climatic data. Female fruit flies that emerged from snake fruit possessed spots on their front preapical femur, concluding that these species were Bactrocera carambolae. The average fruit fly that emerged per fruit was 16.5 individuals. Only one parasitoid species emerged and possessed notauli on mesonotum that elongated to the center and petiole and longitudinal metasomal tergum 2, implying that this parasitoid species was Fopius arisanus with an average population of 5.71 individuals with a parasitization percentage of 26.86%. Results from this research concluded that the fruit fly species collected from registered snake fruit productions in Turi, Sleman, during the early rainy season and dry season was Bactrocera carambolae with a low parasitization level by Fopius arisanus. This parasitization level may be affected by fruit fly density and climatic factors, such as humidity and rainfall.
All species of the Chrysis angolensis group were synonymised with C. angolensis Radoszkovsky, 1881, excluding Chrysis diademata Mocsáry, 1889, endemic of the Philippines. However, after the study of type materials, four species are herein resurrected: Chrysis callaina Gribodo, 1884 stat. reviv., C. erratica Abeille de Perrin and du Buysson in du Buysson, 1887 stat. reviv., C. mossulensis Abeille de Perrin and du Buysson in du Buysson, 1887 stat. reviv., C. sulcifera Bischoff, 1910 stat. reviv. New synonymies are proposed for the following taxa: C. szalayana Mocsáry, 1912 n. syn. and C. ukerewensis Mocsáry, 1914, n. syn. of C. callaina Gribodo, 1884; Chrysis janthina Smith, 1874 n. syn. of C. brachyceras Bischoff, 1910. The new combination Praestochrysis brachyceras (Bischoff, 1910) n. comb. is proposed. Chrysis fuscipennis Brullé, 1846, the name in use for the oldest taxon described in the angolensis group, was replaced with Chrysis angolensis Radoszkovsky, 1881 because primary junior homonym of C. fuscipennis Dahlbom, 1829. However, Chrysis angolensis is here regarded as nomen dubium, C. fuscipennis Dahlbom, 1829 as nomen oblitum, because no longer in use as a valid name after 1899, and C. fuscipennis Brullé as nomen protectum, thus making the name C. fuscipennis Brullé, 1846 stat. reviv. available and restored.
The present study aimed to compare some commercial traps baited with ammonium carbonate for their efficacy in monitoring Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) and their selectivity toward beneficial insects, under the conditions of olive groves located in five Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Spain, Tunisia). The selectivity of the devices was evaluated toward several groups of non-target insects, namely lacewings (Chrysopidae), hoverflies (Syrphidae), ladybirds (Coccinellidae), bees (Apoidea) and hymenopteran parasitoids. The following devices were compared: yellow sticky panel, green sticky panel, Jackson trap with different combinations of yellow and white colours of the device and/or the panel, and McPhail trap. In most cases, the McPhail trap and the yellow panel showed the highest efficacy in monitoring male and female B. oleae flies; however, the yellow panel was most attractive for some groups of non-target insects, particularly the hymenopteran parasitoids, whereas the comparative non-target effects were sitespecific for the other arthropod groups. In the case of Chrysopidae, McPhail caught more individuals than the other traps in Italy and Spain, whereas in Lebanon and Greece, the highest number of individuals was captured in the two sticky panels. Coccinellidae were found in very low numbers only in Lebanon on yellow panels. Syrphidae were captured mainly on sticky panels in Greece and Tunisia. Apoidea were found only on yellow panels in Lebanon. The choice between the McPhail trap and the yellow panel should be made on the basis of various evaluations carried out at the site, including operational ones.
The banana fruit fly (Bactrocera musae Tryon), belonging to the family Tephritidae and subfamily Dacinae, is the main pest of bananas responsible for significant crop losses. In order to monitor the B. musae infestation, we collected banana fruit samples from four locations on the Gazelle Peninsula: Burit, Kereba, Vudal, and Vunapalading. On each field collection date, twelve banana bunches were chosen at random from the corresponding study sites. Following the removal of 100 individual fruits (fingers) from each fresh bunch at each study site, the fruits were weighed, thoroughly cleaned with rainwater three times, and then incubated in containers until the larval developmental stages were finished. When compared to the other three sites, the number of adults in the Kalapua bananas sampled from Burit was the highest. The banana fruits were divided into three main groups: “mature green”, “mature ripe”, and “immature green”. Mature green fruits produced a higher adult abundance than mature ripe fruits. Compared to the other two stages, immature green had the fewest adults. By fruit weight, Burit had the highest infestation (20.9%), while Vunapalading had the lowest (11.9%). After Kereba (14.7%), Vudal had the second-highest infestation (16.8%). Mature ripe fruit had the highest infestation (37.1%) by fruit weight, while immature green fruits had the lowest infestation (2.04%). A moderate level of infestation was observed in mature green fruits (17.1%). Regarding fruit count, the least infected fruits were immature green fruits (1.8%), moderately infected mature green fruits (17.0%), and highly infected mature ripe fruits (26.9%). Geographically, the Gazelle Peninsula has a Kalapua infestation level ranging from 11.9 to 20.9%, and a different maturity stage infestation level ranging from 2.04 to 26.9%. In general, the degree of infestation has escalated, and B. musae has established itself in the Gazelle Peninsula.
In Bangladesh, brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is an important vegetable crop due to its year-round cultivation, high demand for consumption, and nutritional value. The main obstacle to the successful cultivation and production of brinjal is insect pests. The current study was carried out in the winter, when green leafhoppers (Amrasca biguttula biguttula), one type of sucking insect pest, are most prevalent. Early in the vegetative stage, an infestation of green leafhoppers (GLH) was noted; as the canopy size increased, so did their numbers. The consumption of brinjal with its peel poses a health risk due to possible contamination with toxic chemical insecticides. We assess a few non-toxic or minimally toxic bio-insecticides against GLH in order to tackle this crucial problem. Fizimite, one of the bio-insecticides, was found to be effective against GLH in a sodium lauryl ether sulfate preparation. Fizimite decreased the amount of GLH in the plant by 85.8%, the amount of leaf infestation by 77.84%, and the amount of GLH-infected brinjal leaf abundance by 54.34%. But Voliam Flexi, a chemical control, was also discovered to be successful against GLH. Fizimite may therefore be a non-toxic, bio-rational substitute for Voliam Flexi, a synthetic, toxic medication used to control GLH.
Sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are significant medical vectors of pathogens that cause illness in humans and animals. The most significant of these is the genus Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae). Leishmaniasis is an important vector-borne disease. They are spread throughout the Old and New Worlds by the bites of female phlebotomine sand flies. Despite this importance, certain provinces where autochthonous leishmaniasis has historically existed and is re-emerging are lacking current data regarding their sand fly fauna. To provide a current update on the local sand fly fauna, a comprehensive entomological survey encompassing eight provinces was conducted subsequent to an analysis of past data regarding the species composition and distribution of sand flies in the area. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the species composition in various locations across eight provinces spread across four regions in Thailand. In order to gather information about the distribution of the phlebotomine sand fly, researchers used modified Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps between February 2021 and February 2022. At these 30 trappings in each province, we conducted 240 trapping nights in total. Collected sand flies were morphologically identified. The adult sand flies collected in this study were 8314 and represented 24 species of four genera, including 16 of Sergentomyia, 6 of Phlebotomus, 1 of Idiophlebotomus, and 1 of Chinius. Among these species, Sergentomyia anodontis had the largest population (25.71%), and population peaks were observed in Uthaithani province (51.81%). The collected sand flies’ male-to-female ratio was 1.21:1.00 (4,556:3,758). The study also discovered that Phlebotomus argentipes, a vector of Leishmania spp., was captured in Phayao province, and Phlebotomus major major was majorly found in Uthaithani province. The widespread distribution of sand fly populations in this study may indicate the epidemiologic importance of vector ecology in this habitat. Our results confirm the presence of several sand fly species in different provinces of Thailand and provide valuable information about the distribution and behavior of phlebotomine sand flies, which can be used to develop effective control strategies for the prevention of sand fly-borne diseases. In several Thai provinces, the study also tracked the nocturnal movements of both male and female sand flies. The results showed that phlebotomine sand flies are more active at night, peaking just after dusk.
This study investigates the dynamics of hyperparasitism within the Bethylidae family, focusing on the interaction between Sclerodermus cereicollis and Goniozus legneri, two parasitoid wasp species characterized by different sociality and aggressivity towards conspecifics. Experimental trials were conducted using Corcyra cephalonica larvae as hosts, with different setups to stimulate competition. The results revealed unexpected behaviors, especially by S. cereicollis, including aggressive interactions, cannibalism, and hyperparasitism. In contrast, despite the typically aggressive nature of G. legneri, no particular hostility was observed toward S. cereicollis. The study highlights the complex dynamics of competition for resources among parasitoids, shedding light on the adaptive strategies and fitness costs associated with hyperparasitism. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the ecological interactions within parasitoid wasp communities.
