One of the factors that influence the hydrological dynamics of a watershed is land use change, especially those related to water yield and river flow stability. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the impact of land use changes during the period 2018–2023 on water production and the River Regime Coefficient (RRC) in the Minraleng Sub-Watershed, Upper Walanae Watershed. Land cover change analysis was conducted using Sentinel-2 images from 2018 and 2023, while hydrological response was analyzed using the standard Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model with inputs of climate, soil, topography, and land use data. Research results show that during the period 2018–2023, there was a decrease in mixed dryland agriculture, followed by an increase in secondary dryland forests and rice fields. SWAT simulations show that an increase in annual rainfall is followed by an increase in surface runoff, average discharge, and maximum discharge, while minimum discharge experiences a significant decrease. The condition of the watershed indicates that the ability to maintain base flow during the dry season has decreased. The value of the River Regime Coefficient (RRC) increased as a result of greater surface runoff, indicating an increase in river discharge variation between the rainy and dry seasons. The validation results based on community interviews show that the simulation model results are aligned. The hydrological stability of the Minraleng Sub-Watershed tends to decrease due to land-use changes and increased rainfall.
This study examines unequal value capture within the pine resin value chain as a locally important non-timber forest product (NTFP) in rural Indonesia (Sasaka Village, West Sulawesi Province). Using a quantitative descriptive approach, data were collected through field observations, interviews, and a census of 33 active resin tappers, complemented by information from intermediaries and processing industries. The analysis identifies three main marketing channels involving farmers, intermediaries, and a processing industry that transforms raw resin into higher-value products, namely rosin (gondorukem) and turpentine. Results show that both marketing and profit margins are highly uneven across the value chain. While farmers receive a stable price of IDR 10,000/kg, the processing industry captures the largest share of value, with margins reaching IDR 13,000/kg for rosin and IDR 63,000/kg for turpentine. Profit margins are similarly concentrated at the industrial level, particularly for turpentine (IDR 60,288/kg), reflecting economies of scale, processing capacity, and access to export markets. These findings demonstrate clear unequal value capture within the pine resin value chain, where upstream actors receive a relatively small share of the total economic benefits despite their critical role in production. This pattern indicates structural inefficiencies and imbalances in the marketing system. Strengthening farmer bargaining power, improving access to processing technologies, and promoting more equitable market linkages are essential to enhance inclusiveness and ensure the long-term sustainability of NTFP-based livelihoods.
Agroforestry has been widely recognized as a sustainable land-use system that integrates economic, ecological, and social functions. However, the effectiveness of agroforestry management is influenced not only by biophysical and economic factors but also by gender dynamics that shape labor division, participation, and decision-making within households. This study aimed to analyze gender roles in coffee agroforestry management in the Boritallasa Community Forestry Area (Hutan Kemasyarakatan/HKm Boritallasa), Gowa Regency, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. A case study approach combining descriptive quantitative and qualitative methods was employed. Data were collected from 20 respondents through structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and field observations. Gender roles were analyzed using the Moser Gender Analysis Framework, which classifies activities into productive, reproductive, and community roles, while participation patterns were examined through descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The results revealed distinct gender-based patterns in coffee agroforestry management. Men were more actively involved in land preparation, planting, and crop maintenance activities, whereas women showed higher participation in harvesting and post-harvest handling. Reproductive activities, including cooking, house cleaning, laundry, and household financial management, were predominantly carried out by women, indicating the persistence of gendered domestic responsibilities. In community-related activities, men participated more frequently in farmer group meetings and collective activities, while women demonstrated increasing involvement in extension and training programs. Decision-making patterns varied according to the type of activity, with men exerting greater influence over technical farming decisions, whereas decisions related to marketing and income utilization were more commonly made jointly by household members. These findings suggest that coffee agroforestry management in the Boritallasa Community Forestry Area is characterized by a complementary division of labor and increasing collaboration in household decision-making. Understanding these gender dynamics is important for designing more inclusive agroforestry and social forestry interventions that recognize the contributions of both women and men and support equitable participation in sustainable resource management.
The Battang forest area in Palopo City faces ecological sustainability challenges due to pressure from human activities and low conservation awareness. Therefore, an integrated management approach combining ecotourism strategies, conservation awareness, and social participation is required to support forest conservation and ecological stability. This study aims to analyze the integrated role of ecotourism strategies, conservation awareness, and social participation in supporting forest conservation and ecological stability in the Battang area. The study used a quantitative approach with a survey method of 280 respondents consisting of members of forest farmer groups, local tourism actors, traditional leaders, and communities around the forest area. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to examine the relationships among variables. The results showed that conservation awareness (p = 0.000) and social participation (p = 0.000) significantly influenced forest conservation, while ecotourism strategies did not significantly influence (p = 0.193). However, all three independent variables significantly influenced ecological stability, with social participation as the most dominant factor (p = 0.000). The R² values of 0.779 for forest conservation and 0.810 for ecological stability indicate strong model predictive power. The findings indicate that conservation awareness and community participation are key drivers of forest conservation and ecological stability. Furthermore, the effectiveness of ecotourism initiatives depends strongly on social support and the presence of conservation-oriented values that encourage sustainable and non-exploitative resource use.
Land use change is a key indicator of environmental dynamics in watershed ecosystems, particularly in areas experiencing increasing land use changed. This study aims to analyze spatiotemporal land use changes and assess watershed quality based on permanentvegetation cover in the Minraleng Sub-Watershed, Indonesia. Sentinel-2 Level-2A satellite imagery from 2017, 2020, and 2023 was processed and analyzed using a GIS-based overlay approach. Image preprocessing included radiometric correction, band combination, clipping, and on-screen digitization, followed by ground validation using GPS. Classification accuracy was evaluated using confusion matrix and kappa statistics. The results indicate that the Minraleng Sub-Watershed is predominantly covered by primary dryland forest. Forest cover declined by 0.95% between 2017 and 2020 but slightly increased by 0.16% from 2020 to 2023. Watershed quality based on Permanent Vegetation Cover (PVC) remained in the good category, with values of 61% in 2017, 60% in 2020, and 61% in 2023. Classification accuracy was high, with kappa values ranging from 92.25% to 96.43%. These findings provide important insights for sustainable watershed management and strategies to mitigate land degradation risks. Despite the fact that PVC is still classified as being in a good category, the continuous decline in forest cover indicates a growing threat to watershed sustainability, especially in terms of maintaining hydrological functions, regulating streamflow, and preserving the ecological integrity of the watershed.
Different techniques have been developed for segmenting individual trees using point clouds from UAVs and other remote sensing technologies. A more accurate and reasonably priced method is still required, nevertheless, especially for tropical natural forests. This study evaluates the accuracy of individual tree segmentation using point clouds derived from RGB images in Indonesian natural forests. Compared to other sensors like LiDAR, RGB-based point clouds are significantly more cost-effective. We employed a point cloud-based segmentation algorithm, which has demonstrated superior performance over raster-based or hybrid methods. The results show that this approach is feasible for segmenting individual trees, although it tends to produce over-segmentation. This was attributed to the constraints of incomplete ground measurements resulting from dense canopy cover. The method achieved an overall segmentation accuracy of r (0.68), p (0.76), and F (0.72). Tree position accuracy had an RMSE of 1.95 meters, while the RMSE for crown radius was 1.59 meters. Future work will focus on enhancing the quality of RGB point clouds and improving algorithms to increase segmentation accuracy in natural forests.
Peat swamp forests are ecologically important ecosystems that regulate hydrology, store carbon, and support high biodiversity. The Sungai Buluh Peat Forest Reserve in Mendahara Ulu District, Tanjung Jabung Timur, Jambi Province, Indonesia, represents a relatively undisturbed tropical peat swamp forest with high potential for tree species diversity. This study assessed tree species composition, diversity, and community structure in the Sinar Wajo and Sungai Beras Village Forests to support ecological monitoring and guide sustainable forest. Species dominance was analyzed using the Importance Value Index (IVI), while community structure was evaluated using the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′), Pielou’s evenness (E), Margalef’s richness (Dmg), and community similarity (IS). A total of 45 species from 22 families were recorded in Sinar Wajo Village Forest, while 36 species from 21 families were documented in Sungai Beras Village Forest. Diversity and richness were higher in Sinar Wajo village forest, while both sites exhibited high evenness and low dominance, indicating stable and heterogeneous communities. Community similarity between the two forests was high, suggesting comparable ecological and environmental conditions. These results provide a comprehensive overview of tree species composition and community structure in the Sungai Buluh Peat Forest Reserve. The study emphasizes the importance of baseline ecological data to guide sustainable forest management and conservation, supporting biodiversity preservation and maintaining ecosystem functions in tropical peat swamp forests.
Mangrove ecosystems play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of coastal ecosystems and mitigating climate change due to their ability to absorb and store carbon. This study aims to estimate carbon stocks across different mangrove density levels on Bangko-bangkoang Island, Pangkep Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The methods employed include Sentinel-2 imagery analysis using the Google Earth Engine platform to identify vegetation density based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and estimate carbon stocks using an allometric model and field data. The Sentinel-2 image analysis revealed that the mangrove vegetation cover on Bangko-bangkoang Island spans 16.04 ha. NDVI results show that mangroves in the low-density class cover 8.97 ha (56%), the medium-density class covers 3.71 ha (23%), and the high-density class covers 3.34 ha (21%). Field surveys confirmed the presence of three mangrove species on the island: Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora stylosa, and Sonneratia alba. Regression analysis conducted to assess the relationship between NDVI values and carbon stocks revealed the best model as an exponential function with the equation y = 0.0043e(11.726x), yielding a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.683. The average carbon stock for the low-density class is 22.35 tons C/ha, for medium density is 67.1 tons C/ha, and for high density is 111.85 tons C/ha. These findings emphasize the important role of mangroves in climate change mitigation and provide scientific evidence for mangrove conservation efforts, particularly in enhancing vegetation density to optimize carbon storage.
Although SWOT analysis has been widely used for tourism and conservation planning, its application here highlights the institutional and social dynamics shaping mangrove ecotourism in a rural Indonesian context. The study reframes SWOT not merely as a planning tool but as a policy instrument to show how local collaboration, governance capacity and ecological rehabilitation can be aligned to sustain mangrove-based livelihoods. Grounded in the context of Balang Baru Village, where mangrove resources managed as a tourism area face increasing pressure from population growth and economic needs, this study aims to optimise the utilisation of the mangrove forest tourism area through the formulation of effective management strategies. Primary data were obtained from interviews with 15 respondents, including local residents, village government representatives, and members of the mangrove management group. The results identified ten strategic actions to strengthen mangrove tourism management, including the use of non-tourism zones for rehabilitation, the development of mangrove education parks, the establishment of an official tourism website, the improvement of facilities and infrastructure, and the enhancement of stakeholder collaboration. These strategies are expected to support sustainable mangrove management while improving community welfare through ecotourism development.
Ecotourism in conservation areas has significant potential to enhance local livelihoods while supporting ecosystem protection. Sustainability, however, strongly depends on institutional capacity. This study assesses the sustainability status of ecotourism in the Lombuyan Wildlife Sanctuary (KSM Lombuyan), Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi, by integrating ecological, economic, social, and institutional dimensions using the Rap_Ecotourism method, a multidisciplinary rapid appraisal adapted from the Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) approach. Data were collected from October to December 2024 through interviews, ground checks, observations and documentation. The analysis results indicate that the overall sustainability index of the Lombuyan ecotourism area is 63.89%, classified as moderately sustainable. Among the four dimensions: the institutional dimension achieved the highest index (82.37%), followed by the social dimension (80.09%), while the ecological (55.18%) and economic (33.13%) dimensions were relatively lower. The results highlight that the traditional institution Pololuanto Lombuyan plays a crucial role in maintaining governance, enforcing local rules and facilitating collaboration between the community and the Central Sulawesi Natural Resources Conservation Agency (BKSDA). This strong institutional framework compensates for economic limitations and supports ecological rehabilitation, particularly through community-led land restoration and monitoring. Our findings reveal that the sustainability of the Lombuyan ecotourism area is strongly influenced by resilience of local institutions and community participation. Strengthening these governance mechanisms offers a viable pathway for improving the long-term sustainability of ecotourism in conservation landscapes.
This study examines traditional walnut management systems in Onto Village, Selayar Islands, Indonesia, using a Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) framework to understand how forest communities have developed and maintained sustainable resource management practices through generations. Through purposive sampling, 24 walnut farmers were interviewed to document indigenous management practices and utilization patterns associated with heritage trees averaging 40-50 years old. The research reveals a comprehensive five-stage management system—planting, harvesting, drying, peeling, and marketing—developed through accumulated traditional knowledge and continuously refined through practical application. Communities demonstrate sophisticated multi-functional utilization strategies that maximise resource efficiency: kernels serve as food and spices, timber provides construction materials, and shells become fuel for charcoal production. However, significant constraints limit the full potential of this traditional system, including reliance on conventional drying methods, limited processing technology, exclusive marketing of raw products, and absence of systematic replanting programmes, despite favourable market prices (IDR 60,000-100,000/kg). The study demonstrates how traditional ecological knowledge enables sustainable forest resource management whilst providing stable community livelihoods. The documented practices reflect generations of adaptive learning and environmental understanding that maintain both economic benefits and ecological integrity. However, finding highlights the complexities that arise between traditional knowledge and market pressures could emphasizing the importance of developing initiatives that honor traditional practices while also fostering positive economic outcomes. These insights unique contribute to understanding how traditional knowledge can inform sustainable forest management policies and support culturally appropriate development approaches in forest-dependent communities.
Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes play an important role in influencing the hydrological conditions of a watershed. The conversion of land such as forests, shrubs and grasslands into agricultural land can disrupt the hydrological balance of the watershed. The availability of information related to LULC dynamics in the future is needed to assist sustainable watershed management planning. Machine learning technology, such as Cellular Automata, can provide accurate predicting. The objective of this research is to simulate LULC based on machine learning in the Mamasa Sub-watershed. Two model combinations were employed to simulate LULC: Artificial Neural Network-Cellular Automata (ANN-CA) and Logistic Regression-Cellular Automata (LR-CA). The research results found that the ANN-CA model achieved percent of correctness and overall kappa of 83.6745 and 0.75412, respectively, which were higher than those of the LR-CA model (82.3498 and 0.73361). The prediction results of both model combinations still fall below the actual LULC values, especially in the case of large LULC classes such as forests, range-shrub, rice, and pasture. Conversely, higher accuracy is observed for smaller classes such as wetlands-forested, orchard, residential, and oak. However, it should be noted that this research did not include several socio-economic variables, such as population and income level, which are considered to influence changes in LULC. Future research is expected to analyse the influence of each variable and include some socio-economic variables that may have a significant influence on LULC change.
Vegetation is essential for birds to fulfil their life requirements. Monoculture coffee plantations, coffee-based agroforestry systems, and forests in HKm Wana Jaya provide potential habitats for various animal species, including birds. This research assessed bird diversity, richness, evenness, species dominance, feeding guilds, and conservation status across these three land cover types. The point count method was employed for data collection. Data were quantitatively analysed using the Shannon-Wiener diversity index, the Margalef richness index, the Pielou evenness index, and the Simpson dominance index. The study recorded 35 bird species from 19 families comprising 167 individuals. Species diversity values across all three land cover types fell within the moderate category, with forest exhibiting the highest value (2.988), followed by coffee agroforestry (2.648) and monoculture coffee (2.035). The highest species richness was found in the forest (5.429) and the lowest in monoculture coffee (2.970). The highest species evenness was recorded in coffee agroforestry (0.935) and the lowest in monoculture coffee (0.849), while species dominance values across all three land cover types were categorised as low (0.061-0.172). Insectivorous birds dominated feeding guilds across all habitat types, revealing unexpected ecological resilience. Of the species recorded, 29 are classified as Least Concern, two as Vulnerable, four as Near Threatened, while 10 species are protected under national legislation, and three species are listed in CITES Appendix II. The findings suggest that while forests maintain the highest biodiversity value, coffee agroforestry systems can provide crucial supplementary bird conservation habitats in modified landscapes.
This research conducts a comprehensive spatial assessment of the soil degradation status in the Bontoharu District, Selayar Islands Regency, to facilitate evidence-based sustainable land management strategies. By employing an integrated methodological framework that combines GIS-based spatial analysis, field surveys, and laboratory testing, the study evaluates various parameters, including physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Key environmental factors examined include rainfall patterns, topography, soil typology, and land use practices. Primary data obtained from field sampling was supplemented with secondary data sources, including CHIRPS rainfall data (2014-2023), digital elevation models, and official land use classifications. The findings indicate that while 81.78% of the study area demonstrates low degradation levels, approximately 18.22% encounters significant soil degradation challenges, with 7.85% classified as very critical. The spatial distribution analysis revealed that surface rock fragments, shallow solum depth, and unfavourable soil physical properties are the predominant limiting factors. The areas most vulnerable to degradation correlate with steep slopes (greater than 45%) and intensive agricultural activities. The study outlines spatially explicit recommendations for targeted conservation interventions, including reforestation in critical areas (1,288.42 hectares), community forest development (1,018.54 hectares), organic matter amendments, and enhancement of land use practices. This research highlights the importance of integrated spatial assessments in formulating location-specific conservation strategies and provides a methodological framework that is applicable to similar island ecosystems facing soil degradation challenges.
The response of plants to environmental conditions is reflected in their stomatal characteristics, including stomatal type, number, and density. This novel research examines the influence of environmental factors on the stomatal characteristics of Fabaceae tree leaves in the Urban Forest of Maros Regency. The study explores the relationship between stomatal traits and environmental variables such as light intensity and air humidity. Data analysis employed Pearson correlation to assess how these variables affect stomatal number and density. The results reveal variations in stomatal types among Fabaceae species: Acacia exhibits diacytic stomata, Dadap Merah (Erythrina crista-galli L) has paracytic stomata, Trembesi shows normocytic stomata, and Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria L) displays cyclocytic stomata. The study also finds that stomatal number and density are higher in the eastern region compared to the western region. Sengon exhibits the highest stomatal number and density among the species studied, whereas Dadap Merah has the lowest. Correlation analysis indicates that only the External Light Intensity of the Stand (ELIS) significantly affects stomatal number and density at the 0.05 (5%) level. Air humidity does not show a significant impact. These findings highlight the role of light intensity in shaping stomatal characteristics in Fabaceae trees within urban forests, contributing to a deeper understanding of plant-environment interactions and their ecological implications.
The emergence of Generation Z, which constitutes the majority of Indonesia's population, has the potential to drive national progress and promote environmental sustainability. This study aims to explore Generation Z's motivations toward ecotourism and examine their perceptions of ecotourism in Central Sulawesi. A qualitative research approach was employed, utilizing interviews and questionnaires as data collection methods. Respondents consisted of individuals from Generation Z (aged 11–27 years) residing in Central Sulawesi. Likert scale analysis was used to measure the level of motivation and perception among Generation Z regarding ecotourism. The findings reveal that Generation Z's motivation for ecotourism is influenced by both internal and external factors, with internal motivation being slightly more dominant (a difference of 0.23%). Furthermore, the study indicates that Generation Z's perception of ecotourism in Central Sulawesi reflects limited awareness and understanding of conservation values and environmental sustainability. Improvements in facilities and service quality were found to positively influence Generation Z's perception of ecotourism. The study concludes that enhanced development efforts can strengthen both motivation and perception, thereby increasing participation levels and fostering a positive impact on ecotourism.
Forestry Extension Workers, as one of the important parties in maintaining and preserving forest resources in Indonesia, are expected to have an understanding of good extension methods and techniques so that farmers around the forest can improve their knowledge and skills in managing and utilising forest products. This study aimed to assess the performance of forestry extension workers in Tompobulu District. And also evaluate their role in enhancing the knowledge and skills of forest farmer groups in Maros Regency. It was located in six villages, namely Bonto Somba Village, Bonto Manurung, Bonto Matinggi, Bonto Manai, Tompubulu, and Pucak Maros Regency with the number of samples in the study was 57. The study employed qualitative descriptive analysis using a Likert scale, and quantitative analysis using the t-test. The performance of forestry extension workers that significantly influences increasing the knowledge and skills of forest farmer groups consists of six indicator components, namely: facilitating forest farmer groups to prepare forest product utilisation maps; facilitating forest farmer groups to prepare annual work programs and plans; facilitating forest farmer group members to improve human resource quality; facilitating forest farmer groups to disseminate or spread information on forest product technology; facilitating forest farmer groups to grow their empowerment and independence; and facilitating forest farmer groups to increase production results of superior forest product commodities. Meanwhile, the performance of forestry extension workers that does not significantly influence increasing the knowledge and skills of forest farmer groups is Facilitating Business Partnerships Between Forest Farmer Groups, Entrepreneurs, and the Government, Facilitating Forest Farmer Groups to Access Business Capital with Financial Institutions, Banks, and the Government; and Facilitating Increasing the Income and Welfare of Forest Farmer Groups.
Mangroves in the coastal region of Maros Regency represent a critical ecosystem that plays a vital role in coastal protection, marine habitat provision, and climate change mitigation. However, these mangroves face numerous threats, including pest infestations that can severely damage the ecosystem. This study aims to (1) identify the types of pest attacks and the mangrove species affected in the coastal area of Maros Regency and (2) analyse the level of damage caused by these pest attacks. Using field observation methods, this research provides an in-depth analysis of mangrove damage resulting from pest infestations. The findings reveal several primary types of pest attacks, including leaf suckers, leaf-eating caterpillars, stem borers, and termites. The forms of damage include discoloured leaves, damaged shoots and leaves, open wounds, resin secretion, cracked stems, and broken or dead branches, with the severity ranging from mild to severe, depending on the mangrove species. This data is expected to serve as a foundation for better mangrove management strategies to mitigate pest-induced damage in Maros Regency.
This study investigates the success and vigour of cashew seedlings (Anacardium occidentale L.) through direct seed planting, focusing on its potential to support sustainable land management practices. Using a completely randomised design (CRD), the study applied three treatments: seed coat incision (treatment A), seed coat division (treatment B), and no seed coat treatment (treatment C, control), with each treatment repeated three times, involving 270 seeds in total. The results indicate that the control treatment (C), where seeds were planted intact, led to the highest germination success (97.76%), surpassing the other treatments. This method also resulted in better seedling growth, with superior increases in stem diameter (9.83 cm) and leaf production (3.36 leaves). Additionally, seedlings from the control treatment showed enhanced vigour, with an average height increase of 9.83 cm, indicating the benefits of planting seeds in their natural condition. These findings highlight the importance of direct seed planting in maintaining ecological balance and promoting sustainable agriculture practices. The intact-seed approach is recommended for future cashew planting, as it improves seedling growth, contributes to forest conservation, and reduces vulnerability to pest attacks. Thus, it supports long-term ecological resilience in land management systems. This study investigates the success and vigour of cashew seedlings (Anacardium occidentale L.) through direct seed planting, focusing on its potential to support sustainable land management practices. Using a completely randomised design (CRD), the study applied three treatments: seed coat incision (treatment A), seed coat division (treatment B), and no seed coat treatment (treatment C, control), with each treatment repeated three times, involving 270 seeds in total. The results indicate that the control treatment (C), where seeds were planted intact, led to the highest germination success (97.76%), surpassing the other treatments. This method also resulted in better seedling growth, with superior increases in stem diameter (9.83 cm) and leaf production (3.36 leaves). Additionally, seedlings from the control treatment showed enhanced vigour, with an average height increase of 9.83 cm, indicating the benefits of planting seeds in their natural condition. These findings highlight the importance of direct seed planting in maintaining ecological balance and promoting sustainable agriculture practices. The intact-seed approach is recommended for future cashew planting, as it improves seedling growth, contributes to forest conservation, and reduces vulnerability to pest attacks. Thus, it supports long-term ecological resilience in land management systems.
Land use patterns are strongly influenced by human requirements; among the most important problems is deforestation. Particularly with deforestation, central Halmahera Regency has seen significant changes in land usage. We use Qgis software and remote sensing data, to seeks and identify the rate of deforestation in Central Halmahera Regency. from Global Forest Change, that satellite pictures data. According to this studies, Weda and Maba were the most impacted areas in Central Halmahera experiencing the worst deforestation between 2014 and 2017. The conversion of forest land into nickel mining sites caused notable destruction in several places. With an average annual loss of 1,435.43 hectares between 2001 and 2013, data showing varying rates of deforestation between 2001 and 2022 shows Rising during 2014 and 2015, the pace of deforestation peaked at 8,852.506 hectares but started to fall in 2016 and 2017.
