Participation of masters athletes (>30 years) in sprint running (100-400 m) and sprint track cycling (200 m, teamsprint, 1-km) has increased significantly over recent decades. With aging, sprint and endurance performancegradually declines. The present review focuses upon the effects of resistance training on sprint and enduranceperformance and its physiological determinants in masters athletes. The available research demonstrates thatresistance training interventions in masters athletes lead to beneficial adaptations in both sprint and enduranceathletes. With inclusion of heavy strength training exercises in sprinters’ training regimen, increases musclemass, size of fast fibres and rapid neural activation capacity along with improvements in maximal, explosive andsprint force production have been observed. In endurance athletes, strength training has been shown to lead toincreased maximal and explosive muscle strength levels. The actual event-specific performance changes aretypically smaller, but significant (p <0.05), with a 2-4% reduction in sprint running times and 3-6% improvementin endurance cycling and running economy. Taken together, these limited data suggest that resistance trainingprograms produce positive effects on physiological determinants of sprint and endurance performance that resultin enhanced sport performance capacity in masters athletes. Further research on these issues is needed todesign and deliver optimal training programs to aging athletes.; ;
Introduction: Design of a health/fitness facility is a crucial element in managing risks to its operators, users and others. Improper location of treadmills not compliant with industry recommendations can increase the risk of injuries, adverse events and subsequent legal liability for health/fitness facility operators. The aim of our study was to analyse the location (spacing and placement) of treadmills in health/fitness facilities in Australia. Methods: An on-site observational audit was conducted at regional and metropolitan health/fitness facilities (n = 11) in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Queensland. The spacing surrounding the treadmills was measured in centimetres (cm). Placement was assessed by the objects within two metres behind the treadmills. Results: In all health/fitness facilities the distances surrounding the treadmills on the sides, and behind were less than the recommended minimum distances (0.5 - 1m on the sides, 2m behind) by the manufacturers. In most of the health/ fitness facilities there was other equipment (60%, n = 6) within two metres behind the treadmills. Discussion: The findings suggest that most of the health/fitness facilities audited in this study do not comply with industry minimum recommendations on location of treadmills necessary for safe operation. Conclusion: Health/fitness facility operators in Australia should be trained to increase their awareness about the risks associated with improper location of treadmills to take appropriate preventive measures.; ;
Background: Values of resting metabolic rate are very important for determining optimal daily caloric intake. Body fat percentage is one of the most important indicators of health. However, there are possibilities for making mistakes in estimating these values. This study aimed to investigate possible variations in metabolism and body composition estimates throughout a day, depending on the time of the day the measurement is conducted. Methods: 20 male adults (age=24.3±3.3 years, height=180.8±19.5 cm, weight=80.3±35.1 kg) completed three resting metabolic rate and body composition tests during one day, in the morning (8 am) after waking up and fasting from food, caffeine and alcohol for 12 hours, in the middle of the day (1 pm) and in the evening (5 pm). All participants followed a self-selected diet throughout the day in addition to fasting 2 hours before the middle of the day and evening measurements. Results: The test results and comparison have shown significant (p≤0.05) differences between morning resting metabolic rate and middle of the day and evening resting metabolic rates. Resting metabolic rate estimations (8670±1581 kJ) were lowest in the morning and more closely approximated to the basal metabolic rate estimation (8660±774 kJ) of the bioelectrical impedance analysis. Results obtained using skinfold measurements to asses body composition showed no statistically significant difference (pu003e0.05) depending on time of measurement. The only significant differences in body fat estimations over the course of the day, though small (~0.8%) were from bioelectrical impedance analysis. Conclusion: Morning assessments were lowest regardless of the measurement, and body fat estimates via skinfold calliper do not appear to be as affected when measured multiple times within the same day as do body fat estimates via bioelectrical impedance analysis.
Squats recruit a large proportion of the body’s muscular system and provide the foundation for strength training programs for athletes. However, our understanding of electromyographical activity in variations of the high-bar back-squat, notably the split squat, is somehow limited. Therefore, this study aims to investigate surface electromyography (sEMG) activity in the free, Smith and split types of squat. A randomised sample of 10 healthy strength-trained males (age, 20.3 ± 0.5 years; height, 1.7 ± 0.6 m; mass, 78.1 ± 9.5 kg) performed 3 repetitions of each type of squat at 75% of their 1RM. A Noraxon EMG - Raxon system was used to collect peak EMG, RMS EMG, and iEMG for the eccentric and concentric phases of the squat. All sEMG data was normalised to the Smith squat. Two-way ANOVAs were used for type-of-squat and phase-of-squat (p ≤ 0.01). Statistically significant effects for type-of-squat were found for peak EMG and iEMG of the bicep femoris (BF), lateral gastrocnemius (LG) and tibialis anterior (TA) (0.001 ≤ p ≤ 0.003). Significant differences in phase-of-squat were found for peak EMG and RMS EMG of BF (p = 0.001). RMS EMG of the BF (p = 0.002) and LG (p = 0.001) showed significant differences regarding type-of-squat. Therefore, the split squat elicited higher BF and LG muscle activity compared to the free and Smith squats. The findings suggest that the split squat optimally stimulates the BF and LG and should consequently be incorporated into strength and conditioning programs for athletes.
Introduction: Inconclusive previous research on squat depth and the evoked electromyography (EMG) activity muddles our understanding of muscle recruitment in the back squat. This study determined EMG activity as a function of squat depth in four superficial muscles of the lower limb using relative loading. Method: Eight resistance trained males (mean ± SD age: 21 ± 1 years) performed back squats to partial, parallel and full depth using depth-relative 5-repetition–maximum loads. Muscle activity in the vastus medialis oblique (VMO), vastus lateralis (VL), gluteus maximus (GM), and biceps femoris (BF) during the concentric and eccentric phases of the squat was determined using surface electromyography. Peak (Peak EMG), mean (Mean EMG), and integrated (iEMG) EMG normalised to their respective maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) for each muscle were evaluated. Results: Three-way Anovas and Sidak post-hoc analysis revealed significant effects for squat type (p = 0.021 - 0.001), squat phase (p = 0.001), and muscle (p = 0.001). The significant differences were between the partial and the parallel squat (p = 0.016 - 0.001); for iEMG significant effects were also found between the partial and full squat (p = 0.001). The VMO elicited the highest EMG activity (e.g., Peak EMG 93.4 ± 36.9% MVIC; parallel squat, concentric) and the BF the lowest (e.g., Peak EMG 49.9 ± 14.7%). Greater GM activity occurred in parallel squats compared to full squats (mean difference in Peak EMG = 9.1% MVIC). Conclusion: The findings suggest that squatting to the parallel position or lower educes optimal contractile stimulation of the quadriceps. Squatting to parallel depth maximises EMG activation of the GM, possibly due to a more advantageous external moment arm or a reduction in neural drive.
Introduction: Pilates improves the postural balance, strength and flexibility of older adults, but cardiovascular responses while using equipment-based Pilates is not known. Methods: Regular Pilates participants over the age of 60 with stable blood pressure were invited to join the study, and were excluded if they took beta blocker medication. The cardiovascular effects of equipment-based Pilates classes were assessed by measuring participant’s heart rates (HR) using Polar HR monitors (Polar TEAM2 Software) and rating of perceived exertion (BORG 6-20) during a regular Pilates class. After a mat based warm up, seven exercises (using reformer, trapeze, Wunda chair and core-align) were performed for five minutes each in a circuit format, and averaged HR was recorded for each epoch and the whole class. Calculations for each participant’s individual workload were based on percentage of estimated maximal heart rate (training zone = 55% of MHR). After all exercises were complete, participants gave a rating of perceived exertion indicating how strenuous the session was. Results: Eighteen healthy older adults (70.7(4.2) years; resting heart rate 63(6.0) bpm) completed the study. Average exercising heart rate was 87(8) bpm for the 35 minutes of equipment exercise. Participants spent an average 22.6 (9.9) minutes within their training zone. Exercises in standing positions produced a significantly greater cardiovascular effect with an average of 3.7(1.8) minutes per exercise in the training zone compared to supine exercises with 2.2(1.9) minutes in the training zone (P = 0.0001). Overall perceived exertion was 12.7(1.7) ranging from 10 (light) to 16 (hard). Conclusion: Exercises using the large lower body muscles and resistance from Pilates equipment elevates the heart rate into the training zone in older adults. Potential exists to design Pilates classes to meet multiple components of the exercise guidelines that apply to older adults.
Introduction: Training loads and heart rate variability (HRV) were monitored over 69 weeks in a swimming Olympic champion to assess if different types of HRV changes occurred during fatigue episodes. Methods: Weekly training volume (km) and training load (TL, a.u.) were calculated. Morning HRV tests were performed by recording R-R intervals at rest during 8 min supine (SU) and 7 min standing (ST). HRV variables analysed were: heart rate (HR), power (in ms2) of low (LF), high (HF) and (LF+HF) frequencies. Results: Over the period considered, training volume and TL amounted to 2408 km and 1075 a.u.. 55 HRV tests were completed, 10 took place in conditions of ‘fatigue’ defined by the coach after training sessions.Three different sub-categories of fatigue were disclosed: type 1. F(HF-LF-)SU_ST (n=6) embeded a decrease inHF (-55%), LF( -23%) and an increase in HR (+21%) in SU, concomitant with a decrease in HF (-50%), LF(-50%) and an increase in HR (+16%) in ST; type 2. F(LFST) (n=2) featured a decrease in LF (-61%) and an increase in HR (+19%) in ST; type 3. F(HFSUHF+ST) embedded a decrease in HF (-72%) and an increase inHR (+10%) in SU, with an increase in HF (+65%) and a decrease in HR (-14%) in ST. Conclusion: In an elite swimmer, three different types of ‘fatigue’ shifts in HRV patterns were sorted. Each type corresponded to specific changes in sympathovagal settings. To our knowledge, this study is the first one reporting a practical way of monitoring different types of fatigue apart from Nordic skiers.; ;
Introduction: The purpose of this study was to validate acceleration data from a single inertial sensor containinga tri-axial accelerometer, whilst running overground during a prolonged run against a motion analysis system. Methods: An inertial sensor was placed on the low back of 10 runners who performed an 8 km run on a treadmill.To provide validation of the sensor, data were collected as runners ran along a runway through a motion analysis system at the beginning and throughout the run.Results: High levels of agreement between the two systems were found in the craniocaudal and mediolateral acceleration, with antero posterior having the least agreement with greatest Typical Error of the Estimate (0.66 sample points). Very high to extremely high correlations across all testing times were found in all three directions of accelerations (r=0.75 to 0.95). Heel strike and toe off events were identified in anteroposterior and craniocaudal acceleration, with high levels of agreement and extremely high correlations (r=0.99) between the two systems.Minimal variation and change in agreement and correlation between the data at each testing time were found. Discussion: This study provides evidence that a single inertial sensor placed on the low back is valid for measuring three-dimensional acceleration in overground running during a prolonged run. Further analysis identified specific events of heel strike and toe off and were comparable between the two systems. The minimal variation and change in agreement between the two systems during the run indicates the adherence method of the inertial sensor was suitable. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that data collected from a single inertial sensor is highly correlated with simultaneous data collected using a motion analysis system, and has the capability to identify heelstrike and toe off events in overground running throughout a prolonged fatiguing run.
Introduction: The National Physical Activity Guidelines for Australians recommend a minimum of 30 minutes of physical activity most days of the week to maintain good health. The American College of Sports Medicine suggests Pilates may be an effective mode of physical activity, however there is limited evidence to support the efficacy of Pilates for a range of its commercially claimed benefits. Methods: In this observational cohort study, healthy adults (4 males and 14 females), who had not participated in Pilates exercise prior to the study, completed 12 weeks of studio and/or mat based Pilates classes once per week and were compared to age matched controls. Before and after the 12 week intervention, participants completed a dual energy X-Ray absorptometry scan to assess body composition and bone mineral density; completed the 5 stage Sahrmann Core Stability assessment; were assessed for joint mobility at the shoulder, cervical and lumbar spine, hip and ankle using a goniometer; had their lower limb strength assessed through heel raises and isokinetic dynamometry; and their energy expenditure and energy intake monitored utilising the SenseWearTM Armband Mini and a five day food record. Results: There were no significant differences identified between the groups (Pilates and control) at baseline in relation to demographics (age, weight, height) and all aforementioned physiological characteristics, with the exception of cervical neck flexion. After the 12 week intervention, positive changes in core stability as identified through the Sahrmann core stability test among Pilates participants was evident though not statistically significant. Pilates group mean change 0.78 ±1.30AU, control group mean change -0.33 ± 1.11AU (p = 0.070). No other meaningful differences were identified. Conclusions: Though 12 weeks of Pilates completed once per week may be effective for enhancing core stability, it did not appear to elicit positive outcomes for range of motion, body composition and foot
Introduction: The transtheoretical model of behaviour change (TTM) is often used to understand changes in health related behaviour, like exercise. The applicability of this model to exercise behaviour of the 140 million members in fitness clubs worldwide has never been systematically reviewed. The purpose of this paper is to review current TTM studies on exercise behaviour of this specific population. Methods: A systematic literature review was performed using three kinds of databases. In total 285 studies were found. On these studies, specific inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. The methodological quality of the studies was reviewed by using the CASP checklist. Results: Applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria yielded 33 studies on exercise behaviour of members in fitness clubs. Only 8 studies were based on one or more constructs of the TTM. The reviewed research demonstrate promising results. In multiple studies exercise behaviour was significantly increased by factors related to self-efficacy, decisional balance and processes of change. The overall quantity of studies is low and the overall quality is limited; for example randomised controlled trails are lacking. Conclusion: It is evident that research on exercise behaviour of members in fitness clubs using constructs of the TTM is limited. Future research should lead to the development of tailor made strategies and programs to improve exercise behaviour to promote long term health and fitness levels of members in fitness clubs.
Introduction: Quantifying human movement during sporting activities is of great interest since it allows trainers to assess the athlete’s performance, their rehabilitation and injury recovery. Due to the environment limitations of laboratory testing, research has been focused on the development of Micro electromechanical (MEMS) based inertial sensors with the objective of reducing the sensors in size and power requirements, and making the technology widely available at low cost. The aim of this paper is to present an analysis about the growth of wearable technology, notably, inertial sensors, and the use of a common base platform for different sports application fields including research, education, commercial and servicing. Methods: The ongoing trends in the inertial sensor technology development through collaborative activity is discussed in this paper. In particular the convergence of several research tools of a three-axial accelerometer/gyroscope and a digital magnetometer, combined with wireless connectivity that allows the control of multiple sensors through a Matlab-based software toolkit are discussed. Applications fields: The sensor technology has been adopted as an educational tool, as a tool for sports science research, as a base for the development of commercial applications and as a tool that can be used in routing servicing. Discussion: This paper has examined the growing usage and adoption of inertial sensors in the sports science community, through the vignette of the local development of research tools. It surveyed the current directions of human monitoring using inertial sensors for different sports applications. The research outcomes have subsequently be taken up as commercial products, making sensor use widely available to the general public.
Group studio cycling is an effective intervention to improve cardio-metabolic health in overweight sedentary individuals
Introduction: The transtheoretical model of behaviour change (TTM) is often used to understand and predict changes in health related behaviour, for example exercise behaviour and eating behaviour. Fitness professionals like personal trainers typically service and support clients in improving multiple types of health-related behaviour. Research on the population of European fitness professionals in general is lacking. And studies on strategies used by fitness professionals to support clients in changing health-related behaviour is even more scarce. The purpose of this paper is to present the first explorative European study on this subject. Methods: An online survey was performed using the European Register for Exercise Professionals (EREPS), counting 6,681 professionals (January 2015). Most professionals are personal trainers, with a total of 5,222. Additionally there are 1,620 level 3 fitness instructors and 39 at level 5 (exercise for health specialist). Professionals of five countries were surveyed in the first quarter of 2015. The survey was send out by email to 3,497 fitness professionals. Results: In total 178 fitness professionals participated. European fitness professionals use a mix of strategies to support behaviour change of health related behaviours. The most addressed type of behaviour was exercise, followed by nutrition. The support mainly focused on clients in the preparation and action stage of the TTM. Reaching the desired goal and too expensive were the main reasons for relapse with respectively 51.7% and 38.3%. Conclusion: European fitness professionals use a wide range of strategies to support clients in changing health-related behaviour. This study draws a first picture of the used strategies within the TTM framework. Future research should focus on other frameworks for behaviour change and other populations, for example fitness professionals on other parts of the world. Ultimately, research should test the effectiveness of strategies to increase the adoption and maintenance of health-related behaviour of clients, and client retention of professionals.
Introduction: There are few research studies that have tested the reliability of the Biodex Balance System (BBS) Limits of Stability Test (LOS). This study aimed to test the reliability of the BBS LOS at two time points on two different settings of platform stability.
Introduction: The use of gaming consoles for exercise training and rehabilitation has been gaining popularity however, research comparing exercises performed with gaming consoles vs. traditional methods are lacking. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the muscle activity and lower limb joint movement during Nintendo Wii Hula-Hooping and traditional Hula-Hooping. Methods: Participants (N = 14) performed Nintendo Wii Hula-Hooping and traditional Hula-Hopping while lower limb joint kinematics and core (erector spinae, external oblique and rectus abdominis) muscle activities were recorded via optical infrared cameras and surface electromyography respectively. Results: Nintendo Wii Hula-Hooping pelvis (obliquity, tilt and rotation) and hip (sagittal plane) range of movement were significantly (P < .05) greater than during traditional Hula-Hooping. Traditional Hula-Hooping displayed significantly (P < .05) more external oblique, rectus abdominis and erector spine muscle activation than the Nintendo Wii Hula-Hooping. Conclusion: Although differences between Nintendo Wii Hula-Hooping and traditional Hula-Hooping conditions exist, the use of these methods may be more dependent on the exercise therapy program that has been designed for the client and the capacity of the client.
Introduction: The science of traumatic brain injury has evolved into a deep understanding of physiological mechanisms, injury identification, management, and prevention. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention rates concussion management, and prevention as an epidemic level of importance. In the USA, concussion affects between 1.6 and 3.8 million athletes per year. The primary aim was to provide substantiated recommendations for current best practice educational initiatives. The secondary aim was to determine if education alone as a prevention strategy for decreasing concussion rates in sport is successful. Furthermore, recommendations for future research have been provided.
Introduction: The squat is one of the most effective exercises in athletic training. However, there is a scarcity of research that reports the muscular and joint loads in the lumbar region incurred when performing the high bar and the low bar isometric squat modalities in a Smith machine. Therefore, this study aims to determine the muscle force of the lower back extensors, and the compressive (Rc) and shear (Rs) forces at the lumbosacral joint for the one repetition maximum (1RM) high bar and low bar isometric parallel-depth Smith squats. Methods: Eight healthy male well-trained 400-m sprinters participated in the study. The athletes performed the two modalities of the isometric squat on a 7° backward-inclined Smith machine using a mean ± SD 1RM external resistance of 100.3 ± 7.2 kg. During the squat, the participants paused for 2-3 s at the bottom of the squat, corresponding to a position in which the thighs are parallel to the ground. This was, therefore, considered a static position for the calculation of isometric muscle forces and joint loads using static mechanical analysis. Moment arms, and joint and segmental angles were calculated from video images of the squatting performance. Internal forces were computed using a geometrical model of the trunk and lower limb. Results: Spinal extensor muscular forces and lumbo-sacral joint forces were higher when using the low bar technique; with the exception of Rs which was approximately equal. The mean Rc were 10.2 body weights (BW) or 8,014 N (high bar) and 11.1 BW or 8,729 N (low bar). Discussion: The low bar technique yields higher Rc and may therefore be avoided in the rehabilitation of spinal injuries. Increased bone mineral density and well-developed trunk musculature due to long term squat training can provide protection against passive spinal tissue failure. Therefore, the Rc found for the 1RM isometric parallel-depth Smith squat do not appear excessive for healthy well-trained athletes. The presence of Rs at the lumbo-sacral joint in both squat modalities suggests potential for damage to the intervertebral disc. The findings provide an in-depth understanding of the two squat modalities in isometric conditions for the prevention of lower back injury and the design of rehabilitation programs.
