Geometric monitoring of slender structures in power transmission infrastructure, particularly steel lattice towers of high-voltage lines, is an important engineering surveying task due to their susceptibility to environmental loads and their role in operational safety. This study compares the determination of the geometric axes of lattice transmission towers using classical tachymetric measurements and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) performed with a compact Leica BLK360 scanner. The objective was to assess the consistency of these two methods in determining planimetric axis deviation, and to evaluate how the quality of point cloud registration impacts the results. The analysis was carried out at fourteen height levels, with deviations referred to the lowest measurement level. The TLS data were evaluated using registration quality parameters (overlap, strength, cloud-to-cloud, and global bundle error) obtained in Cyclone REGISTER 360 PLUS. Registration was performed in cloud-to-cloud mode without the use of control points. The results revealed significant discrepancies between the two methods, with local deviations exceeding 100 mm. The maximum planimetric axis deviation derived from TLS reached 140 mm, whereas the corresponding value obtained from tachymetry did not exceed 44 mm at the same inclination. Increasing differences were observed in the upper parts of the structure. These findings suggest that TLS measurements taken without stable geometric control cannot be relied upon to accurately assess axis deviation. In practice, combining the geometric stability of tachymetric measurements with the spatial completeness of TLS data offers the most effective solution for precise axis evaluation and comprehensive geometric documentation.
The paper presents the results of research on the role of cartographic products and high-definition (HD) mapping in the autonomous vehicle industry. The research methodology includes a review of professional literature and a qualitative interview with an expert from the autonomous transport industry (Blees company). Blees, founded in 2019, specializes in autonomous minibuses, which aim to ensure safe and fast passenger transportation. The company implements advanced and broad transport implementations in cities and municipalities, including Gliwice, Jaworzno, and Sosnowiec. The analysis covers the characteristics of automation levels according to the SAE J3016 standard and technical specifications of sensors, such as LiDAR, RADAR, and GNSS-RTK. A synthetic review of industry applications (TomTom RoadDNA, HERE HD Live Map) and technological solutions was performed with particular emphasis on the SLAM algorithm and Digital Twin Cities concept. The study confirms that contemporary cartography has evolved from human-centred representations into a digital foundation for machine perception, providing a ‘virtual sensor’ for precise localization and safe driving. The results are presented in reference to the practical experiences of the Blees BB-1 autonomous minibus deployment. Cartography has become the digital foundation for perception of autonomous systems. HD maps serve as a virtual sensor with an unlimited field of view. The SLAM algorithm enables navigation in the absence of satellite signals. 128-beam LiDAR allows for mapping of road geometry with a precision down to once centimetre. Precise spatial data supports environmental sustainability and the smooth flow of urban traffic.
The study evaluated whether simple site-specific empirical corrections can improve the agreement between Landsat 8 and ECOSTRESS thermal products and ground-based surface temperature logger observations acquired in Kraków, Poland. Three field campaigns conducted in 2023–2024 were paired with Landsat 8 and, when available, ECOSTRESS acquisitions. Two correction approaches, linear regression and additive bias correction, were tested for eight calibration subset configurations representing different urban surface contexts, including paved surfaces, urban parks, heterogeneous urban sites, waterfront locations, spatially dispersed sites, vegetation-covered sites, and a subset defined by low initial mismatch. Performance was assessed using RMSE and the standard deviation of residuals relative to the reference measurements. Both correction approaches reduced disagreement relative to the uncorrected data, but the magnitude of improvement depended strongly on acquisition date, product type, and calibration subset composition. The results show that simple local correction can increase the practical utility of satellite thermal data in a heterogeneous urban setting; however, the findings should be interpreted with caution because contact-based logger measurements are not strictly equivalent to radiometric land surface temperature, and some satellite ground pairs were not fully synchronous.
The article presents an extensive and multifaceted study of the territory surrounding the Rivne Nuclear Power Plant, which were carried out through the integrated use of Earth remote sensing data and advanced geoinformation technologies. The research framework encompasses three interrelated components that collectively provide a holistic understanding of the region’s geodynamic and environmental conditions. The first component focuses on identifying and analyzing areas characterized by significant anthropogenic pressure, including zones affected by industrial activity, urban development, and natural landscape transformations. This assessment is supported by high-resolution satellite imagery, which enables the detection of subtle surface changes and land-use dynamics. The second component involves the development of a detailed geoinformation system (GIS) for the Varash municipal territorial community. Using very-high-resolution satellite data, the authors created a multilayer digital model that integrates spatial, environmental, infrastructural, and socio-economic information. This GIS platform supports long-term monitoring, spatial planning, and decision-making at both municipal and regional levels. The third component employs Sentinel-1 interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data to determine vertical ground displacements with high precision. The interferometric analysis revealed that vertical deformations across the study area during 2022–2025 ranged from 12 to 30 mm, which indicates the overall stabile ground conditions of the territory around the Rivne NPP. The study highlights the significant potential of modern satellite-based technologies for monitoring critical infrastructure, managing territorial development, and enhancing environmental safety.
This article presents a case study examining the use of large language models (LLMs) in the process of creating an interactive map of Krakow’s digital cultural heritage. The aim of the study was to analyse the potential of LLMs as tools supporting fast prototyping of web maps in a popularisation and narrative context. The research methodology consisted of comparing two variants of the generated map using differently configured language models, while maintaining the same point dataset and the Leaflet.js programming library. In both variants, the LLM served as a client- side application code generator, and a tool supporting the integration of descriptive data and user interface design. The results suggest that a more elaborate user interface was generated using the standard ChatGPT interface, whilst the specialised GPT model produced a solution with lower logical complexity, understood as the range of decision-making rules and data processing implemented on the client side of the application. This confirms that the degree of language model specialisation does not translate directly into the functional scope of the generated map application. The conclusions highlight the role of LLMs as tools that support the design process and shorten the prototyping cycle in web cartography, while maintaining expert control over the data and their interpretation.
Classic methods of geodetic and diagnostic measurements performed for railway purposes are characterized by the time-consuming nature of data acquisition. In the case of highly complex structures, such as railway stations, it is not easy to collect comprehensive information about the inventoried structure. Hence, there has been a marked increase in the demand for and use of modern measurement techniques such as mobile and aerial laser scanning wherever a compromise between quality and speed of information acquisition is required and achievable. The publication demonstrates the possibility of using aerial laser scanning technology for the inventory and modeling of railway infrastructure. The stages of processing point clouds obtained in different coordinate systems in the TerraSolid program environment are presented. The transformation of point clouds between the “1992” and “2000” systems resulted from data obtained for a 2130 m long section of railway line in Bochnia, in the Małopolska Province. The density of the source point clouds was 11 and 17 points/m2, respectively. The transformation of the clouds into a single coordinate system allowed for the creation of a point cloud with an average density of 28 points/m2. The dense point cloud created as a result of the transformation to the “2000” system was the basis for performing an inventory of the railway infrastructure and a 3D model of the studied object using MicroStation and TerraSolid software.
Medyka, located on the Polish-Ukrainian border in south-eastern Poland, was well known across Europe in the 19th century for exporting plants thanks to its manor house, park complex together with the horticultural school. Research on this estate provides evidence that an analysis of historical maps is necessary for the protection of cultural heritage in modern landscape design. The three Austrian Empire Military Surveys and the Austrian Cadastre, created in the 18th and 19th centuries, are four of the most important maps of the Austrian Empire for modern landscape analysis and design. Comparative analysis of these maps enables us to reconstruct brilliant spatial solutions and elements that no longer exist or are difficult to identify. The recomposition design of the manor house and park complex in Medyka supports the protection of cultural heritage and the adoption of appropriate spatial solutions. It also allows for the adaptation of historical forms to modern needs and the restoration of elements that have disappeared over the years. Almost all historical forms and solutions were incorporated into the recomposition design. Moreover, new functions have been designed for the park and its surroundings, on both sides of the river, that is the natural boundary of the estate. Realising the recomposition design could make the complex in Medyka more famous and attract more tourists.
Historical city plans and rasters of Warsaw are contained within local coordinate systems (Warsaw-25/75), which makes it difficult to address and integrate them quickly into contemporary data processing pipelines. This paper systematises the problem by defining rigorous rocedures for section encoding and decoding: 1) transforming planar coordinates (X, Y) → a sheet code compliant with the N/S–O/W grammar (row, column), and 2) mapping a sheet code → the section envelope [Xmin, Ymin, Xmax, Ymax]. The proposed approach has constant time complexity O(1), employs unambiguous boundary rules, and is parameterisable (sheet dimensions, the position of the Warsaw origin), which simplifies adaptation to heterogeneous cartographic series. We demonstrate how these mechanisms plug into practical workflows: they allow one to identify the target sheet immediately from a given point, reconstruct its bounding box before loading data, and verify consistency between a code stored in metadata and a code computed from coordinates. These procedures interoperate with transformations to PUWG 2000 (PL-2000), enabling the seamless linkage of Warsaw materials with current reference databases. In AI/ML scenarios, the section code acts as a stable spatial identifier that facilitates sample selection and dataset organisation. We additionally provide numerical recommendations (ε and floor) that stabilise the classification of edge cases and remove ambiguities. The algorithms were implemented in Bentley MicroStation with Visual Basic for Applications, ensuring portability to other VBA-capable environments such as Microsoft Office. The solution requires no series lookup tables, operates directly on a metric grid, and is robust to coordinate precision variations, thereby supporting ETL automation and quality control across public administration and industry.
The increasing reliance on boreholes in Kinshasa reflects the ongoing inadequacy of the public water supply, raising concerns about the management of groundwater and the potential health risks connected to aquifer contamination. This study assesses the vulnerability of groundwater in the Lukunga watershed using the GOD method, complemented by a health risk analysis focusing on deficiencies in essential minerals: calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Hazard quotient (HQd) was applied to evaluate the risk of chronic exposure. Physico-chemical data from 23 water samples (September 2023) supported the generation and validation of vulnerability maps. Integration the GOD model and HQd approach offers a cost-effective and scientifically robust framework, especially suited for data-limited urban settings. The GOD model provided a rapid classification of aquifer sensitivity, while HQd refinement incorporated hydrochemical data to improve exposure risk estimates. The results revealed that nearly 30% of the watershed falls under the ‘very high’ vulnerability category, particularly in downstream areas and along major rivers. The main source of pollution is linked to domestic waste due to poor urban sanitation. Although chemical contamination remains low, the predominant health risk arises from insufficient Ca and Mg levels, with average concentrations of 1.19 mg/L and 1.07 mg/L, respectively. These suggest very soft water and an insufficient daily intake, especially for vulnerable populations. Elevated HQd values indicate potential long-term health consequences, including an increased risk to bone and cardiovascular conditions. This study highlights the urgent need for improved monitoring of groundwater and mineral supplementation strategies to protect public health and ensure the sustainable management of Kinshasa water resources.
A 3D point cloud is a collection of millions of spatial points that faithfully capture object shape and structure. Handheld mobile laser scanners are increasingly adopted because they enable rapid and complete acquisition. This paper evaluates the geometric and metrological quality of a point cloud collected with a handheld MandEye PRO scanner based on the Livox Mid-360 from an architectural object, using terrestrial laser scanning with a Leica ScanStation P40 and a network of total station control points as references. Point-like, linear, and planar features were assessed by registration to the control frame, segment-length comparisons, plane fitting, and cloud-to-cloud distance analysis. After registration, root mean square errors on control points fall within 0.02–0.19 m (mean 0.08 m). Segment lengths are consistent to within a single centimetre across handheld MLS, TLS, total station measurements, and direct field readings, while the differences in areas of fitted planes are 0.7–1.9%. Local deviations concentrate along edges and in shadowed zones, indicating sensitivity to trajectory coverage and sampling density. In well-covered regions, the overall agreement between MLS and TLS remains stable, whereas gaps in visibility or sparse sampling lead to localised discrepancies. The results show that, in this configuration, handheld mobile scanning provides accuracy consistent with the requirements of geodetic documentation while offering high acquisition efficiency. These findings support the use of handheld MLS for architectural surveying and geodetic fieldwork, provided that route planning and sampling are designed to ensure robust coverage of critical facades, edges, and occluded areas.
The subject of this study is to develop an earthwork volume balance for future works related to the construction of a single-family housing estate. As part of the design and construction of a single-family housing estate, the earthwork balance is crucial, as it allows for effective earthworks management and appropriate cost calculation. Proper planning of earthworks reduces the need for soil transport and minimises operating costs. Two models were developed to conduct the earthworks budget: the current terrain model and the design terrain model. The current terrain model was created on the basis of an integration of geodetic measurements and data from the digital terrain model (DTM). Then, based on the design assumptions, a design terrain model was generated, taking into account the planned embankments, excavations, and the target foundation level of buildings and road infrastructure. Analysis of the differences between the current and design terrain models made it possible to determine the volume of earth masses to be removed, relocated, or managed on the project site. Geodetic methods and GIS tools were used in the calculation process, enabling precise determination of volumetric differences. The obtained results indicate the possibility of optimising earthworks management through appropriate distribution of embankments and reduction of the volume of soil requiring removal. The conclusions from the analysis can contribute to better planning of construction investments and reduce their environmental impact.
Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) has become one of the key technologies for surveying and documenting engineering objects, including large-scale and hard-to-access hydraulic structures. Water dams are a prominent example with considerable spatial dimensions, complex geometry, and critical importance for technical and environmental safety. This calls for modern, precise, and comprehensive documentation methods. TLS enables the acquisition of dense three-dimensional spatial data in the form of point clouds, providing a robust basis for geometric inventorying, visualization, and assessment of structural condition. This study uses TLS datasets acquired for the Rożnów and Klimkówka dams to produce 2D technical documentation, 3D models, and geometric analyses of the dams and their associated components. The point clouds support surface-based evaluation of object geometry, verification of structural continuity and integrity, detection of shape changes, and analysis of spatial relationships between the dams and their surroundings. An additional advantage of point clouds is the reusability of the acquired data: cross-sections, plans, and visualizations can be generated repeatedly at later stages without the need for renewed field surveys. The results demonstrate the high utility of TLS as a support for geometric inventorying, technical condition assessment, and long-term monitoring of water dams, particularly in the case of large, geometrically complex hydraulic structures.
This article presents a study on the impact of optimal parcel configuration on agricultural production efficiency and the profitability of land consolidation, using the example of Przysieka, a village in Poland. The research focused on parameters of spatial configuration of parcels, such as area, length, and width. Detailed studies were conducted using a synthetic measure of parcel configuration known as land distribution costs. The research found that despite a large average area of parcels, that is close to 1 ha, a significant portion of them had an inefficient spatial configuration, which significantly limited the profitability of agricultural production in the study area. To determine the profitability of the land consolidation process, a simulation of changes in parcel configuration was performed. This involved applying optimal lengths, which were estimated for each parcel while maintaining its original area. The simulation results showed a significant decrease in land distribution costs. Although this reduction was slightly below the profitability threshold for potential consolidation, the outcome is promising. The study emphasizes that the simulation considered only the change in parcel configuration, ignoring other key consolidation factors such as the reduction of land distribution and shorter distances to homesteads. The conclusions suggest that the research method used can be a valuable tool for assessing the need for consolidation actions in areas with a seemingly correct area structure. However, in order to provide a definitive answer on the profitability of the entire process, further research that includes the full range of benefits brought by consolidation is needed.
The article presents an analysis and comparison of geodetic methods used for the measurement and monitoring of slender structures such as chimneys, towers, cooling towers, and power line poles. Due to their slender geometry and considerable height, these structures are highly sensitive to environmental influences, including wind, temperature variations, and ground settlement. The study discusses the evolution of measurement techniques – from classical tacheometry and levelling, through satellite-based GPS and GNSS systems, to modern terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and digital photogrammetry. Recent research indicates integrating multiple surveying methods, known as a hybrid approach, guarantees improved accuracy and reliability of measurement results. The measurement of verticality of the Wrocław Iglica, a representative slender structure, is an example of the use of the described methods. Due to its geometry and the conditions in the field, a tacheometric survey was conducted to determine vertical axis deviations under different sunlight conditions. The results confirmed noticeable deflections of the structure’s top throughout the day, demonstrating the influence of thermal factors on its stability. The analysis of both literature and measurement shows that the most effective approach to monitoring slender structures is the integration of data from various geodetic techniques. Such hybrid monitoring ensures a comprehensive assessment of the structural stability and durability of slender constructions over time. The results highlight the importance of continuous geodetic monitoring as a key factor in ensuring the safety and reliability of engineering structures.
This study investigates the applicability of a compact terrestrial laser scanner (Leica BLK360) for assessing the verticality of a tall industrial chimney, and compares its performance with high-precision total station measurements. In the first phase, a reference control network was established and observed using the tangential envelope method with a total station, providing a precise benchmark. Terrestrial laser scanning was then carried out, and circles were fitted to horizontal cross-sections extracted from the point cloud. A least-squares approach was used to calculate chimney-axis deviations and evaluate verticality along the height of the structure. The results of both methods revealed a consistent trend of deviations increasing with height. Maximum differences between the total station and TLS measurements did not exceed 5 mm, which remains within acceptable geodetic tolerance. This demonstrates that the BLK360 is capable of providing sufficiently accurate data for preliminary deformation monitoring of tall engineering structures. The main advantage of the BLK360 scanner lies in its rapid and automated data acquisition, which allows for more frequent observations, reduced fieldwork time, and early detection of structural irregularities. However, limitations such as a reduced measurement range, lower sensitivity under unfavorable conditions, and dependency on surface reflectivity were also identified. Despite these constraints, the study confirms that the BLK360 can serve as a valuable supplementary tool to conventional total station surveys, offering practical support for ongoing monitoring, and contributing to improved safety in engineering practice.
The adverse effects of underground mining often manifest as ground surface deformations, which may lead to damage or even the complete destruction of buildings. Such consequences pose a particularly serious threat to human health, safety, and property. These hazards are mostly monitored and assessed using surveying techniques. This study presents the results of an experimental evaluation of a novel methodology for measuring and estimating the deformation in an architectural structure situated within the mining area of decommissioned coal mines in Upper Silesia (Będzin, southern Poland). The primary research objective was achieved through geodetic measurements employing terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) technology. The proposed measurement procedure comprised two stages: (1) an inventory survey of the building facade, and (2) high-precision scanning of specially designed control points embedded within the thermal insulation layer. Notably, this method effectively compensates for the presence of the thermal insulation, which would otherwise prevent direct measurement of the building’s structural surface based on characteristic points.
The objective of this article was to assess whether the form of ownership of residential units can influence their transaction prices in the real estate market. The analysis considered two forms of ownership: full (separate) ownership of a residential unit and cooperative ownership rights to a condominium unit. The study focused on units sold between August 2020 and August 2022. The studied units are located in buildings belonging to the Nowy Prokocim Housing Cooperative in Kraków. The study area is an example of a large, uniform housing estate characterized by block-of-flats’ development with a regular urban layout. The buildings housing the units under analysis were constructed using large-panel-system technology, as part of the industrialized housing construction systems prevalent at the time, and they were built in the 1970s and 1980s. The uniformity of location, technology, and functionality of these buildings allowed for the elimination of many variables affecting the market prices of residential units, making it possible to examine the impact of different forms of ownership on real estate prices. The analysis covered 123 residential property transactions, including 62 units with full (separate) ownership rights and 61 with cooperative (proprietary) ownership rights. The market analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics and linear regression. The results of the analysis showed that in the market in question, the studied ownership forms were not a factor in price differentiation. Residential units with both separate ownership rights and cooperative ownership rights achieved similar market prices, exhibiting similar growth rates over the two-year period under analysis.
The development of an information society is one of the European Union’s key objectives. In this context, geospatial data play a particularly important role, and are regulated by the INSPIRE directive and the Spatial Information Infrastructure Act in Poland. These data include, among others, the BDOT10k, GESUT, and orthophoto maps, which are widely available through geoportals and network services such as WMS and WFS. Up-to-date spatial information supports institutions, businesses, and citizens in planning and economic development. At the same time, the protection of critical infrastructure (CI) is becoming increasingly important. CI includes energy, telecommunication, financial, water, healthcare, transport, rescue, and administrative systems. Disruption in their functioning can lead to serious crises. Poland has implemented the National Critical Infrastructure Protection Program, which aims to ensure the security and continuity of these systems. This protection involves physical, technical, personnel, and teleinformation measures, with cyberattacks emerging as one of the most significant threats. The conclusions emphasise the need to balance open access to data with the protection of strategic information. In particular, access to data on high-capacity transmission networks should be restricted, while the physical and cyber protection of critical infrastructure must be strengthened. The current model of publishing geospatial data requires a thorough review and adjustment in the light contemporary threats.
Land consolidation is one of the basic processes enabling the shaping and improvement of agricultural land structure. This process is in most cases implemented using State Treasury funds and public resources. Its execution requires an approval decision for the consolidation project. This decision, being an administrative ruling, may be appealed by any party to the proceedings and subsequently challenged in administrative courts. This procedure may lead to protracted proceedings and, consequently, multi-year periods that prevent rational land management and effective exercise of property rights. The article analyses the consolidation process, identifying potential bottlenecks causing delays, with supporting examples from ongoing consolidation proceedings. The land consolidation process in Poland faces significant challenges related to time-consuming procedures and rigid funding frameworks. Current regulations allow for multiple appeals, which are sometimes exploited by claimants blocking entire proceedings. Cases like Lipnica Wielka demonstrate that procedures can drag on for years, restricting owners’ rights. Legal reforms modelled on special-purpose legislation (such as for infrastructure or flood protection) are necessary to separate compensation disputes into separate proceedings and limit procedural abuses. Introducing merit-based requirements for appeals and owner education could accelerate consolidation processes while ensuring economic benefits and better rural land management. The current land consolidation system, though essential for rural development, remains inefficient due to excessive bureaucracy and lack of safeguards against abuse. Urgent legal amendments inspired by special legislative measures are required to ensure procedural efficiency and fairness.
This article presents examples of adaptation measures successfully implemented over many years, aimed at adjusting to the changing conditions in which humanity lives. The authors critically analyze current actions and views regarding climate change, drawing attention to often-overlooked positive facts and measures that fall outside the so-called mainstream narrative, which applies methods of inciting entire communities to hysteria. They highlight the prevailing tone of alarmism in the media and public debate, which often overlooks the tangible benefits of adaptation, and provide relevant examples. The analysis shows that adaptation programs have positive effects on property values as well as natural and landscape values. They are among the most frequently chosen climate protection measures. The climate is changing – it’s a fact. However, there is no clear evidence that human activity is the main driver of these transformations. The authors emphasized that climate adaptation is not solely a product of ecological ideology, but rather a pragmatic approach whose effects, both economic and environmental, are increasingly outside the mainstream discussion. Their analysis is largely based on the report ‘The Limits to Growth,’ also known as the Rome Report. Both hurricane protection and water adaptation examples support the thesis that an effective response to climate change relies not on panic but on the ability to integrate scientific knowledge with long-term spatial planning.
