Gait speed has become a key predictor in identifying individuals at risk for falls in both healthy and clinical populations. Given the cost of falls on the healthcare system and the aging population, decreasing the prevalence for falls and improving gait speed has become an important area of research for reducing the financial burden on the healthcare system. Cycling, in particular, has emerged as a promising modality to improve gait speed, with recent evidence suggesting that cycling cadence may be a key variable influencing this improvement. This systematic review aims to identify the current state of the literature regarding cycling cadence and gait speed, with seventeen studies meeting the inclusion criteria for inclusion in this review. Evidence generally supports the benefits of cycling interventions for improving gait speed, but also highlights inconsistencies in the reporting of cycling prescription variables including cadence, work rate, and intensity within the literature. Furthermore, the studies identified do not provide insight into potential underlying adaptations that may be driving the reported improvements in gait speed. Across the included studies, cycling interventions were generally associated with improvements in gait speed or related mobility outcomes across a range of older adult and clinical populations. Future studies should more consistently report cycling prescription variables and incorporate mechanistic outcomes to better understand how cycling interventions improve gait performance.
School physical education experiences may shape later exercise engagement, yet how such experiences are cognitively organized in relation to perceived sports competence remains insufficiently understood. This study examined the associations between perceived sports competence and retrospective physical education experiences among Japanese university students using a mixed-methods design. Participants (N = 276) completed a retrospective questionnaire assessing perceived sports competence (PSPP-J short-form Sports Competence subscale), elementary and junior high school physical education experiences, and current exercise-related outcomes. Exploratory factor analysis supported a single-factor structure (eigenvalue = 2.84, variance explained = 61.87%), with good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.86). Based on median scores, participants were classified into lower and higher competence groups. Quantitative analyses indicated that students with higher perceived competence reported more positive retrospective evaluations, greater comfort in physical education settings, and higher current exercise frequency. Qualitative text mining analyses further revealed systematic structural contrasts in narrative organization: higher competence narratives demonstrated greater integration of ability-related and affective elements, whereas lower competence narratives showed stronger clustering of evaluative and socially contextualized terms. Overall, the findings suggest that perceived sports competence is associated not only with exercise-related behaviors but also with differences in how physical education experiences are organized within retrospective accounts. These findings highlight the potential relevance of competence-supportive instructional contexts for understanding how physical education experiences may be remembered and interpreted later in life.
Walking football (WF), the walking version of competitive football (i.e., soccer), is a team-based sport that is popular with middle-aged and older adults. While some research has focused on the potential health benefits of WF participation, little research has focused on evaluating walking fitness tests as correlates (i.e., predictors) of physical work during WF competitions. This study evaluated whether metrics of walking test performance could predict metrics of physiological work measured during match play. Methods: Men’s (n=16; Mean±SD: 49±10 yrs age) and women’s (n=20; Mean±SD: 55±14 yrs age) WF teams from England, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, all of whom were competing in an international WF tournament in Singapore, were recruited for this study. Participants performed two walking tests: 10m Walk Test to determine maximal walking speed (WSMAX), and the 6-min Walk Test to measure maximal walking distance (6MWTD) in 6 mins. The 6MWTD was also transformed into a predicted maximal oxygen uptake (PVO2MAX). During the tournament the next day, participants wore a neoprene waist pack with an accelerometry-based activity monitor (AM) that was used to derive three metrics from a single competitive match: Total activity counts (ACTOT, counts/match), total steps (STEPSTOT, steps/match), and a sum of MET-minutes (MET-mins/match). Multiple regression procedures were then used to predict the physiological work values (ACTOT, STEPSTOT, MET-mins) from the walking test metrics (WSMAX, 6MWTD, PVO2MAX) (0.05 alpha). Results: Neither 6MWTD nor PVO2MAX were predictive of any physiological work variables (P=0.57-0.97), but WSMAX was highly predictive of all physiological work variables – R2=0.65 for ACTOT, R2=0.54 for STEPSTOT, R2=0.61 for MET-mins – with sex as a covariate. Conclusions: Walking test metrics related to cardiorespiratory fitness were not related to measures of physiological work during WF match play, but the metric of maximal walking speed (WSMAX) seemed to be highly predictive. These results suggest that aerobic walking fitness (i.e., as determined by 6MWTD performance) may be less important than anaerobic bursts of walking speed (i.e., WSMAX) to the needs of competitive WF match play.
Resistance training (RT) is widely recognized as a crucial component of preparation in swimming. Its impact on each swimming stroke remains unclear. Existing research has yielded inconsistent findings, and there is a need to synthesize the available evidence for more generalized knowledge in this area. This systematic review (SR) aimed to evaluate the effect of RT consisting of different resistance exercises (RE) in land as well as water medium on different strokes of swimming (SoS). This SR followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines with a PICOS (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes and Study) approach, for searching, reviewing, and evaluating the studies collected from six different databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Research Gate). After inclusion and exclusion, 21 studies (conducted between 1993 and 2024) from different databases were included in the present SR for analysis and synthesis of more generalized knowledge on the impact of RT on different SoS. The study was registered in PROSPERO having no.: CRD420261301994. The methodological quality (MQ) was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale, and the risk of bias (RoB) was calculated using the Cochrane RoB 2.0 tool. This study analyzed twenty-one randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that used stroke-specific swimming and incorporated RE, conducted on dry-land (dry-land resistance training: DLRT) & in-water (in-water resistance training: IWRT), and reported the impact of RT on different measures of swimming performance. The result revealed that both RT (DLRT & IWRT) improved swimming performance in all aspects, like starts, turns, and overall stroke mechanics. But there was no specific RE guidelines observed for performance enhancement, nor a specific RE schedule in individual swim strokes. Among the studies included in this SR, most of the studies investigated the impact of RT on freestyle, while backstroke and breaststroke, got only limited attention, however, no selected studies put attention on butterfly stroke this suggests that RT plays a crucial role in swimming strokes, particularly in freestyle, and to a lesser extent in backstroke, breaststroke. The findings put forth that future research should look at the effects of RT across all the strokes of swimming including backstroke, breaststroke, also need special attention on butterfly, which in turn will give us more clearer picture of how REs may be used to improve the performance in each SoS.
Parental engagement may be a crucial factor in the success of health promotion programs for youth. Studies have shown that programs with actively engaged parents lead to more significant improvements in youth’s health behaviours. This study aimed to determine the relationship between parental engagement in the Global Health Program activities (GHP) and participants’ perceptions of the program as well as to evaluate the correlation between parental lifestyle habits and those of their children. A cross-sectional study was conducted, and data were collected via self-report online questionnaires. Among the 54 families, 67.5% reported minimal engagement. Students whose parents were minimally engaged were more likely to participate in fewer activities compared to students with frequently engaged parents (79.5% vs 20%). Additionally, 75.9% of students reported that GHP had a positive impact on their well-being and 51.9% held a positive perception of school leaders’ implication. No significant associations were found between parental engagement and student well-being, nor between the lifestyle habits of parents and children (sleep, screen time, physical activity). These findings suggest a need to strengthen school-family partnerships to enhance student participation in school-based health promotion programs.
Population aging is a growing phenomenon worldwide, particularly with a significant increase in the population aged 80 and over, a group characterized by a greater predisposition to sedentary lifestyles and marked physiological declines. In this context, low-cost strategies, such as home-based strength training, can help maintain health and functional autonomy. The study aimed to verify the effects of a period of home-based strength training on functional capacity, anthropometric measurements, and resting blood pressure in an octogenarian. This is a retrospective case report involving an 84-year-old male participant who is hypertensive and sedentary. Anthropometric measurements, resting blood pressure, and functional capacity were assessed using the Senior Fitness Test. The training protocol was conducted at home, three times a week, for 24 weeks, using full-body circuit training exercises with resistance bands, dumbbells, and ankle weights. Following the intervention period, improvements in functional fitness were observed, with increased performance in strength, flexibility, agility, and aerobic endurance tests, as well as a reduction in anthropometric measurements and resting blood pressure. In conclusion, this case study showed that home-based strength training was associated with improvements in functional, anthropometric, and cardiovascular parameters in an octogenarian. However, these findings should be interpreted with caution, as they refer to a single participant.
Physical Education (PE) is an important component of higher education because it contributes to students’ physical health, psychological well-being, social development, and lifelong physical activity engagement. However, the effectiveness of compulsory PE remains uneven in many higher education contexts, particularly when students perceive PE as secondary to academically specialized subjects. This study examines the factors affecting students’ learning outcomes in compulsory PE at Vietnam National University of Agriculture. The study investigates the relative effects of Course Content, Teaching Methods, Learning Motivation, and Facilities on students’ perceived learning outcomes. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted among 150 undergraduate students enrolled in compulsory PE courses. Data were analyzed using Cronbach’s Alpha, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple regression analysis. The findings indicate that all four factors positively and significantly influenced students’ learning outcomes. In comparison, Course Content emerged as the strongest predictor, followed by Teaching Methods, Learning Motivation, and Facilities. The results suggest that students’ PE learning outcomes are influenced more strongly by curricular relevance and pedagogical quality than by infrastructural conditions alone. This study contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence from a Vietnamese higher education context and by clarifying the relative hierarchy of determinants affecting compulsory PE learning outcomes. The findings imply that improving PE effectiveness requires an integrated approach centered on meaningful curriculum design, effective pedagogy, student motivation, and supportive learning conditions.
Social–emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood is a foundational predictor of later wellbeing, learning engagement, and life outcomes. Movement- and game-based learning is frequently recommended for preschool settings, yet evidence remains limited on how teachers provide emotional scaffolding while children engage in sport-based educational games, particularly in Indonesian early childhood education and care (ECEC). This qualitative case study explored (1) how teachers scaffold children’s emotions during sport-based educational games, (2) how game structure elicits opportunities for emotion regulation and prosocial behavior, and (3) how SEL goals are integrated into planning and reflection. Data were collected through classroom observations of game sessions, semi-structured interviews with three ECEC teachers and five parents, and document review of lesson plans (RPPH/RPPM). Data were analyzed thematically with Nvivo 12 plus (open coding, categorization, and theme refinement), supported by a codebook and matrix-coding queries. Four themes emerged: teacher emotional scaffolding practices, game structure as a trigger for SEL, observed socio-emotional behavioral change, and integration into planning and reflective practice. The findings highlight the pedagogical value of sport-based educational games as a context for emotion coaching and co-regulation, and provide practical guidance for embedding SEL indicators into early childhood physical education activities.
Due to reduced instructional time in Physical Education (PE), teachers are challenged to help students achieve at least 50% of class time in Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA). This study examined the effects of real-time heart rate (HR) feedback, extrinsic rewards, and grade level on students’ activity level in elementary PE. Results showed a significant main effect for grade level. Second graders had a higher % MVPA than fifth graders. There was a significant screen reward interaction. Participants in the screen condition had a higher % MVPA when extrinsic rewards were involved, but those in the no-screen condition had a higher % MVPA when no extrinsic reward was given. There was a significant grade level reward interaction. Fifth graders had a higher % MVPA when tangible items were offered, but second graders had a higher % MVPA with oral recognition alone. The results suggested more teaching on the HR-related content and exploring different types of extrinsic rewards.
The current research provides a basis for the personalization of athletic training optimization, but there are still many possibilities for the further extension and refinement of the hybrid intelligent system approach for future research. The current system includes each athlete assessment as an athletic snapshot in isolation and does not have information about the temporal aspects of training history and response to training. In the future this type of work should also include modelling approaches such as recurrent neural network or state space models that observe the evolution of performance over longer training cycles. Longitudinal data would allow the system to adapt learned individual adaptation rates, recognize the individual as a responder to or non-responder of particular training stimuli and enact adaptive programming, the means to adjust based on the results actually achieved rather than static predictions. The use of closed-loop feedback control using the frameworks of reinforcement learning is a very promising direction. The ability to discover nearly optimized training adjustment policies by allowing the system to see outcomes in many thousands of combinations of athlete and intervention opens the door to finding some of the subtler interaction effects between aspects of the athlete and the program variables that are difficult to encode as rules. This approach would make the system from prescriptive to truly adaptive, so that recommendations would improve as more and more athletes move through training cycles.
Executive functions (EFs), including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, are critical for cognitive development and academic success in children. Research suggests that structured physical activities, such as martial arts, are associated with better EFs, yet studies in non-Western contexts like Morocco are scarce. This study addressed this gap by examining the association between martial arts training and EFs among Moroccan children mean age = 10.20 years, SD = 1.30; 26 females and 34 males. A cross-sectional design was employed, comparing 30 children practicing full contact and kung fu in semi-urban clubs with 30 children engaging in unstructured play in rural areas. EFs were assessed using culturally adapted tests, including the Digit Span Test, Corsi Block-Tapping Test, Stroop Color-Word Test, and New Card Sorting Test, with composite scores for each EF domain. Non-parametric and parametric tests were used due to non-normal data distributions. Results indicated that the martial arts group outperformed the control group across all EF domains (inhibitory control: d = -1.562, p < 0.001; cognitive flexibility: d = -0.826, p = 0.003; Working memory: r = 0.473, p < 0.001), with inhibitory control as the strongest predictor of group membership (b = -2.673, p = 0.003, OR = 0.069). Cognitive flexibility mediated 41.7% of the association between martial arts and overall EF performance (p = 0.010). These findings suggest martial arts are associated with better cognitive development in Moroccan children, informing potential integration into educational curricula. The cross-sectional design and modest sample size limit causal inferences, warranting longitudinal research to explore working memory ability in diverse cultural settings.
In the past few years, there has been a growing interest in the use of Hellison’s Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model both in sports and Physical Education (PE) programs and in broader pedagogical interventions. TPSR helps individuals adopt habits and set behavioural goals, based on a culture of responsibility both within and outside of school contexts. The present study describes a TPSR participatory action research intervention conducted at a primary school in an urban area of Attica in Greece, as a whole-school approach that could help students develop responsible habits and attitudes. Ninety-one (91) students (boys=48, girls=43, aged 8 to 12 years) from grades 3-6 participated in the study, together with four generalist teachers, the PE teacher, and the school principal. Data was collected pre- and post with the Greek version of the Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire (PSRQ) (quantitative data), along with qualitative data, from teacher reflective journals, and classroom observations. A mixed methods ANOVA (time x grade) was used to evaluate the effect of the intervention on students’ personal and social responsibility, while qualitative data were analysed thematically based on the TPSR levels of responsibility. Results showed that there was a statistically significant main effect of time, with students exhibiting higher levels of personal and social responsibility at the end of the intervention. Qualitative data analyses revealed that teachers’ goal setting and ongoing reflection contributed to students’ responsibility and positive behavior development. The importance of action research as a proactive and reactive approach to educational transformation was mentioned by all participants. These findings highlight the need to prepare the ground for implementing TPSR as a whole-school approach that foregrounds the building of strong and trusting relationships as critical to reconnecting students with the broader school culture.
Age, gender, and Body Mass Index (BMI) significantly influence foot dimensions. However, research on BMI's impact is limited, focusing primarily on implications for shoe design. This study aimed to collect foot anthropometric data from Indian adults and examine the impact of BMI on foot dimensions. A total of 270 volunteers participated, divided into Normal (n=135) and Overweight (n=135) groups based on BMI. The average age, height, and weight of the normal and overweight participants were 21.96 ± 4.174 years, 162.58 ± 8.925 cm, and 58.24 ± 8.593 kg, and 24.17 ± 7.476 years, 165.87 ± 9.205 cm, and 74.65 ± 9.662 kg, respectively. Foot anthropometric data were recorded using a 3D foot scanner and analyzed with SPSS v26. Spearman correlation indicated a significant positive relationship between BMI and foot dimensions, excluding arch height (p<0.01). The Mann-Whitney U test showed significant differences (p<0.05) between normal and overweight groups in all measured parameters, except for foot arch height. The findings of this study reveal that BMI significantly influences foot morphology in overweight participants, who exhibit broader and longer feet than those of normal-weight individuals. These variations highlight the need for BMI-specific footwear design to improve fit, comfort, and stability. However, further research with a larger sample size, considering age, sex, and ethnicity, is necessary to establish a comprehensive database.
Undokai, a Japanese school sports festival, is widely implemented in schools and is assumed to offer learning opportunities beyond physical development. However, few studies have systematically examined students’ reflections using large-scale open-ended data, including differences by school stage and gender. This study aimed to clarify students’ perceived learning outcomes and self-growth through undokai and to examine (a) school-stage and gender differences in word-use patterns and (b) how word co-occurrence patterns vary according to students’ favorability toward undokai. Open-ended reflections were collected after undokai from 932 students in Japan (junior high school: n=425; elementary school: n=507) from two elementary schools and one junior high school. Responses were analyzed using quantitative content analysis supported by KH Coder, including co-occurrence network analysis with KWIC-based contextual checks, correspondence analysis with school stage and gender as external variables, and co-occurrence network analysis treating favorability ratings as an external variable. Favorability toward undokai was associated with co-occurrence patterns involving attitudes toward exercise and others’ gaze. Themes of perceived learning outcomes and self-growth were broadly consistent with educational goals articulated in the Courses of Study (e.g., solidarity/responsibility and fostering familiarity with exercise). Correspondence analysis indicated differences by school stage and gender: elementary students emphasized personal physical development, whereas junior high students highlighted relationships with peers and the school community; gender-related differences were more evident among junior high school students. Quantitative content analysis of large-scale student reflections helps clarify students’ perceived learning outcomes and self-growth through undokai, providing practical implications for developing instructional strategies that consider students’ favorability toward undokai, school stage, and gender in Japanese schools.
Understanding the effects of high-cadence cycling on subsequent running performance and spatiotemporal parameters is vital for determining whether a brief, low-impact cycling stimulus can acutely enhance running performance in healthy adults. However, research on cycling-to-running transfer has primarily focused on triathletes, and its applicability to healthy adults remains largely unexplored. This study aimed to examine the acute effects of high-cadence cycling on subsequent 800-meter running performance and spatiotemporal parameters in healthy adults. Thirty healthy adults completed two testing visits. In the first visit, participants performed an 800 m run at a maximal workout pace. In the second visit, participants completed a 10-minute bout of high-cadence cycling, then immediately repeated the 800-meter run. Time, average cadence, velocity, step length, and step time were compared between visits. Significant improvements were observed in total time, cadence, velocity, and step time, while step length did not change significantly. Participants were also classified into cadence-dominant or step-length-dominant strategy groups, and running outcomes were compared within each strategy group. Total 800 m time decreased during the cycle-run protocol in both running strategies, but only the step length group achieved statistical significance. Cadence increased significantly in the cadence strategy group, and step length increased significantly in the step length strategy group. These findings indicate that an acute bout of HCC may improve 800-meter running performance and alter running strategy in healthy adults. Furthermore, the variability in responses suggests that while HCC serves as a potential rhythmic primer, runners retain individualized movement strategies when translating to faster running speeds post-cycling.
Herein, we compared physical fitness profiles among non-dancers and dancers practicing classical ballet, contemporary dance, and ballroom dance. Forty young women were divided into four groups: classical ballet (19.1 ± 1.7 years; BMI: 20.7 ± 1.6 kg/m²), contemporary dance (22.0 ± 3.9 years; BMI: 21.1 ± 2.6 kg/m²), ballroom dance (22.1 ± 3.5 years; BMI: 22.2 ± 3.3 kg/m²), and non-dancer controls (24.8 ± 3.3 years; BMI: 22.3 ± 2.5 kg/m²). Physical fitness was assessed using sit-and-reach, sit-up, push-up, vertical jump, flamingo balance, shuttle-run, and Borg perceived exertion tests. Non-dancers showed lower performance across all physical fitness tests than dancers, with the clearest differences observed against classical ballet and contemporary dance groups. Across dance modalities, classical ballet and contemporary dancers demonstrated superior neuromuscular fitness compared with ballroom dancers, particularly in muscular endurance, lower-limb strength, balance, flexibility, and agility. No relevant differences were observed between classical ballet and contemporary dancers. Non-dancers also reported greater perceived exertion during testing. These findings indicate modality-specific fitness adaptations and suggest that dance-related physiological demands differ according to training characteristics. The results may help coaches, dance teachers, conditioning specialists, and researchers develop targeted interventions to enhance performance, physical fitness, and long-term health outcomes among dancers and active populations.
This qualitative study examines parents' changing views on their children’s participation in organized sport, focusing on shifts before and after a structured parent education program. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), data were collected through pre- and post-focus group interviews with 17 parents (average age 47.6) of football players aged 10–12. The program, held bi-monthly near the training venue, included ten sessions on communication, parental roles, anxiety, and child development. The study investigates how targeted pedagogical support influences parental attitudes, expectations, and behaviours. Findings showed changing parental interpretations of youth sport. Prior to the intervention, parents reported feelings of pride and enthusiasm, as well as concerns about injury, fairness, and coaching influence. Gender stereotypes influenced their views on participation and goals. After the program, parents noted three main changes: (a) better communication with children, (b) increased awareness of sport's psychosocial aspects, and (c) greater recognition of their influence on sports experiences. However, they also faced challenges in guiding children’s health habits and performance, prompting broader debates on responsibility and adult boundaries in youth sport. The program encouraged parents to rethink their views of sport beyond competition, recognizing its role in personal growth, social skills, and values. Despite challenges with motivation, routines, and norms, parents showed more reflexivity, autonomy-supportive communication, and openness to change. Overall, the study emphasizes the importance of well-structured educational programs in enabling parents to develop the skills and perspectives needed to navigate the complex realities of youth sport, thereby encouraging constructive, supportive, and ethically grounded involvement.
This article traces the genealogy of fitness culture in the Philippines by examining how discourses of physical training have traveled, changed, and taken root over space and time. It follows these ideas from their early articulation in ancient Greece, through their reinterpretation in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, into modern forms shaped by colonial and postcolonial conditions. Rather than moving in a linear fashion, discourses on exercise and bodily cultivation were repeatedly translated, adapted, and contested as they circulated across historical periods and geographical spaces. The case of The Fit Stop, a pseudonym for a contemporary gym in the Philippines, provides a concrete illustration of this process. Its practices and promotional language reflect the local uptake of global fitness ideals, showing how long-standing discourses of health, strength, and bodily improvement are reworked within a specific social context. Read genealogically, The Fit Stop can be understood as a localized globalism, rooted in earlier traditions of physical training while shaped by local histories and conditions.
Foot anthropometric data is important for footwear designing. As shoe sizes increases; foot dimensions influence overall foot morphology. As yet, limited studies explored the progressive changes of foot dimensions across different shoe sizes, particularly implication in footwear design. Present study collected foot anthropometric data from Indian young adults, categorized by shoe sizes and examine the variation across key foot dimensions. One hundred fifty volunteers (N=150; aged 18-25 years) were stratified by self-reported by shoe sizes: UK5 (n=50; age , height and weight were 22.56 ± 6.71 years, 156.49 ± 3.94 cm, 58.46 ± 12.29 kg), UK6 (n=50; age 22.28 ± 6.34 years, height 160.32 ± 4.90 cm, weight 60.22 ± 11.88 kg) and UK7 (n=50; age 20.82 ± 3.83 years, height 165.67 ± 4.34 cm, weight 62.69 ± 11.58 kg). Feet dimensions were obtained using 3D foot scanner, and statistical analysis was performed by SPSS v26. Pearson correlation (r) between Foot sizes and foot dimensions showed significant (p<0.01) positive correlation, across most foot dimensions. One Way ANOVA and post hoc ANOVA showed the significant differences (p<0.05) in most foot dimensions except arch height and heelpiece total length. In this study major dimensions were increased proportionally with increased shoe sizes (UK 5, 6 and 7); while arch height and heelpiece total length were relatively decreased. These findings provide actionable evidence for footwear last design; however, results should not be generalized for the entire Indian population. Further comprehensive studies are required to develop a robust database of foot dimensions across age groups, genders, and different ethnic backgrounds.
Objectives: To test whether short-term sleep extension affects sleep, mood, and swim performance in adolescent competitive swimmers under real-world training. Methods: A pragmatic within-group, two-period crossover compared Regular and Extended sleep during routine in-season training. Outcomes included device-based sleep (with HRV-derived staging), pool performance (50-m sprint; mean 10×50-m pace; 800-m time trial), post-set physiology, and mood (EFI). Primary inference focused on the within-subject Regular vs Extended contrast; three-phase (Preliminary/Regular/Extended) ANOVAs were descriptive. Results: Total sleep time increased with Extended vs Regular, confirming successful manipulation. Group-level pool performance did not improve across tests (all paired contrasts non-significant). Mood changes were small and non-significant. Physiological responses were largely unchanged; however, post-set blood lactate after the 10×50-m set was modestly lower with Extended (Holm-adjusted p = .035). Sleep architecture shifted: Deep sleep was lower and arousal indices higher under Extended. Conclusions: In adolescent swimmers, short-term sleep extension is feasible and increases sleep duration under real-world conditions but does not yield immediate gains in pool performance. A small reduction in post-set lactate and alterations in sleep architecture warrant cautious interpretation. Findings temper expectations for near-term performance benefits and motivate longer, individualized protocols with monitoring of achieved extension dose.
