The electrochemical stability and charge-transport properties of biopolymer blend films are significantly affected by blend composition, as each polymer component contributes uniquely to segmental mobility, bulk resistance, amorphous structure, and interfacial stability. In this study, salt-free agarose:phytagel (AG:PY) biopolymer blend films were fabricated at various weight ratios using the solution-casting method to identify an optimal host matrix for the development of salt-doped electrolytes. Linear voltammetry measurements showed that the 50:50 mass ratio AG:PY mixture has an electrochemical stability window of 3.25 V, indicating substantial resistance to electrochemical decomposition within the tested potential range. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis showed that the 50:50 blend achieved the highest room-temperature conductivity of 1.56 mS cm⁻¹, attributed to reduced bulk resistance and indicating more favourable charge-transport characteristics within the polymer host. X-ray diffraction analysis verified this finding, revealing the lowest crystallinity in the 50:50 mass ratio, suggesting increased amorphous content and greater polymer chain flexibility. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectral shifts confirmed interactions between the functional groups of agarose and phytagel, indicating improved blend compatibility. Collectively, the 50:50 mass ratio AG:PY blend exhibited the most advantageous combination of electrochemical stability, ionic conductivity, amorphous structure, and polymer interaction, establishing it as a promising sustainable host matrix for future salt-doped biopolymer electrolyte applications.
Accurate prediction of coupled electrochemical and thermal behaviour is essential for improving the performance, durability, and safety of lithium-ion batteries. Internal heat generation, nonuniform reaction-current density, lithium-concentration gradients, and spatial temperature variation become particularly important under high-rate operation and nonuniform cooling. This review critically evaluates electrochemical-thermal coupled modelling approaches, with emphasis on model dimensionality, three-dimensional internal heterogeneity, heat-generation mechanisms, computational efficiency, and parameter-dependent thermal behaviour. Electrochemical formulations ranging from single-particle and reduced-order models to pseudo-two-dimensional frameworks are examined together with lumped, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional thermal models. Irreversible reaction, reversible, and solid- and electrolyte-phase ohmic heat-generation mechanisms are discussed, and direct, sequential, hybrid, and multiscale coupling strategies are compared in terms of information exchange, physical fidelity, parameter requirements, and suitability for real-time or high-resolution applications. A validated three-dimensional pouch-cell case study illustrates how active-material particle size, electrode thickness, discharge rate, and convective heat transfer influence overpotential, lithium-concentration nonuniformity, heat generation, and temperature distribution. The reviewed evidence indicates that reduced-order models are advantageous for control and online estimation, whereas high-fidelity three-dimensional models are required to resolve localized electrochemical and thermal behaviour. However, practical implementation remains constrained by computational cost, parameter uncertainty, simplified boundary conditions, and limited validation of internal variables. Future progress requires computationally efficient physics-based and surrogate models, standardized parameter identification, uncertainty quantification, integration of aging and mechanical degradation, advanced internal diagnostics, real-time digital twins, and multiscale extension from cells to modules and packs. This review provides a structured basis for selecting electrochemical-thermal models according to battery geometry, operating conditions, required outputs, and computational constraints.
Despite the increasing interest in plant-derived green corrosion inhibitors, the inhibition mechanism of Annona muricata leaf extract for carbon steel in acidic media remains largely unexplored. In this study, the corrosion inhibition performance of an ethanolic extract of Annona muricata leaves was systematically investigated for SAE 1008 carbon steel in 1 mol L-1 HCl, combining gravimetric measurements and electrochemical techniques, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and potentiodynamic polarization curves. Complementary, Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used for surface characterization. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of several bioactive metabolites such as alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and lactones, which may contribute to the adsorption capability of the extract. The extract exhibited concentration-dependent inhibition, reaching approximately 92 % efficiency at 6 vol.%. Adsorption analysis showed that the inhibition process follows the Langmuir isotherm, suggesting the formation of a protective organic monolayer on the steel surface. Electrochemical measurements showed a decrease in corrosion current density and an increase in charge transfer resistance in the presence of the inhibitor. Potentiodynamic polarization results revealed that the extract acts as a mixed-type inhibitor. Surface analyses confirmed the adsorption of organic species and the formation of a protective film that reduces corrosion damage. These findings provide new mechanistic insights into the corrosion inhibition behaviour of Annona muricata leaf extract and demonstrate its potential as a sustainable, environmentally friendly corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in acidic environments.
In this study, cyclic voltammetry was used to examine the electrochemical characteristics of a carbon paste electrode modified with a manufactured Ni-based 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylate metal-organic framework nanostructure/graphene oxide nanocomposite. The modified electrode demonstrated outstanding electrocatalytic activity toward isoproterenol (IPT), with superior electrochemical performance, low overpotential, and high conductivity when used as an electrochemical sensor for the catalytic oxidation of IPT. It was found that under ideal conditions (pH 7.0), the oxidation potential of IPT would drop to approximately 170 mV at the modified electrode compared with an unmodified carbon paste electrode. A linear concentration range, 0.05 to 480.0 μM IPT, was demonstrated using differential pulse voltammetry. It was discovered that the IPT detection limit was 0.015 μM. To determine IPT in the presence of uric acid (UA), the selectivity of the developed electrochemical sensor was also examined. Ultimately, the developed sensor was used to detect IPT and UA in genuine drug samples and human urine, yielding satisfactory findings.
SnO2-based anodes have been widely used in heterogeneous catalytic processes, particularly in the anodic oxidation of wastewater containing recalcitrant organic materials. This review covers the application of SnO2-based anodes for the treatment of various wastewater sources, including phenols, dyes, landfills, and petroleum refinery wastewater, via direct anodic oxidation. The key operating parameters affecting anodic oxidation are summarized, the oxidation process mechanisms are elucidated, and typical methods for preparing these electrodes are described. This comprehensive review demonstrates that SnO2-based anodes can efficiently degrade organic pollutants in wastewater and confirms their high oxidation capacity and dimensional stability. Despite these excellent properties, the performance and durability can be further enhanced via novel doping strategies, innovative fabrication methods, and hybrid material designs, such as combining SnO2 nanotubes with TiO2 nanotubes. These emerging approaches provide pathways for the scalable and energy-efficient deployment of SnO2-based anodes in industrial wastewater treatment and sustainable operation applications.
Electrocoagulation has emerged as a promising alternative for the treatment of wastewater from a wide range of sources. Interest in this technology has grown due to its several advantages, including a small footprint, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. In contrast, conventional wastewater treatment methods that rely primarily on biological processes often exhibit limited removal of emerging contaminants, highlighting the need for more efficient and versatile treatment alternatives. This review article provides an in-depth discussion of the application of electrocoagulation technology for wastewater treatment, with a specific focus on its performance in real wastewater matrices across industrial, municipal, and agricultural case studies, including evidence from case studies demonstrating its use on a large scale. It examines key factors that influence process performance and presents the governing equations that determine the technology's efficiency and applicability. A key contribution of this review is the integrated analysis of reactor design, operational parameters, and emerging hybrid electrocoagulation (EC) systems, such as EC coupled with advanced oxidation processes (EC-AOP) and membrane processes (EC-membrane), highlighting recent technological advancements that improve treatment efficiency while reducing energy consumption. The review also addresses techno-economic considerations and synthesizes findings from life-cycle assessment studies, revealing critical trade-offs between environmental benefits, such as reduced eutrophication potential, and limitations including increased ecotoxicity. Finally, the article identifies key research gaps and highlights the potential of replacing fossil fuel-based energy inputs with renewable energy sources as well as the importance of electrode optimization and sludge valorisation strategies to improve the overall sustainability and scalability of electrocoagulation systems.
At present, the rapid growth of the global economy, together with the accelerated depletion of fossil fuel resources, has led to growing concerns about the availability and sustainability of energy. Therefore, renewable energy sources such as solar, hydrogen, and wind energy are of critical importance. Compared with other hydrogen production methods, water electrolysis offers several advantages, including sustainability, low cost, high efficiency, and the absence of harmful atmospheric emissions. In recent decades, water electrolysis as a hydrogen production technology has been extensively investigated. The development of new, efficient, and cost-effective electrocatalysts for water electrolysis remains a crucial challenge. Cobalt-phosphorus thin films are promising candidates for replacing expensive noble-metal-based electrocatalysts. In the present work, bifunctional Co-P thin films were synthesized via a one-step electrodeposition method from an acidic electrolyte. The as-deposited films were amorphous; however, after annealing, two orthorhombic phases, Co₂P and CoP, were identified by X-ray diffraction analysis. The prepared films were characterized using X-ray phase analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The electrocatalytic properties of the coatings were investigated before and after annealing in both neutral (0.5 M Na₂SO₄) and alkaline (1 M KOH) media for the hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions. In addition, the corrosion behaviour of the Co-P thin films was examined, and it was established that the amorphous, non-annealed films exhibited superior corrosion resistance in alkaline media.
X-ray diffraction was used in this work to analyse the Cu2O nanocubes prepared via one-pot wet-chemical method. Next, 4-aminophenol (4-AP) was determined using a Cu2O nanocubepulse voltammetry, and cyclic voltammetry were used to assess the electrochemical characteristics of 4-AP at the Cu2O/SPCE sensor. As the redox peak currents increased, the results showed that the Cu2O/SPCE exhibited strong electrocatalytic activity for 4-AP. With a limit of detection of 0.008 mu M, the oxidation peak current under the chosen circumstances was proportional to the 4-AP in the range of 0.02 to 500.0 mu M. With positive outcomes, the suggested approach was used to ascertain the 4-AP content of actual samples.
The study of corrosion inhibitors for mild steel in HCl is crucial for enhancing the service life of industrial infrastructure, especially in environments prone to rapid deterioration and high maintenance costs. In this work, a zinc acetate-omeprazole nanomaterial (ZO) was prepared and its corrosion inhibition performance on mild steel deterioration in 0.5 M HCl solution was investigated using electrochemical techniques. The particles of the nanomaterial (with sizes ranging from 2.70 to 6.37 nm) predominantly exhibited a spherical to near-spherical morphology, with relatively smooth, well-defined edges. The mean hydrodynamic diameter of particles (Z-average diameter) of 59.79 nm indicates that the particles are primarily in the nanoscale range. The X-ray diffraction pattern of ZO revealed distinct diffraction peaks superimposed on a broad background, indicating the coexistence of crystalline and amorphous phases. A decrease in corrosion current density from 1781 µA cm-2 in the uninhibited medium to 1315 µA cm-2 upon the introduction of 0.1 g L-1 of ZO was observed. A progressive decline in corrosion current density was observed as inhibitor concentration increased. The shifts in corrosion potential were relatively small, suggesting that the inhibitor exhibits a mixed-type inhibition mechanism rather than a purely anodic or cathodic one. The charge transfer resistance increased from 210.21 Ω cm² in the absence of ZO to 230 Ω cm² in its presence (0.1 g L-1). The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results indicated that the highest inhibition efficiency achieved in this study was 77.6 % at 0.4 g L-1 ZO concentration. The inhibition efficiency increased with increasing inhibitor concentration. These findings indicate that the synthesized nanomaterial effectively mitigates corrosion of mild steel in 0.5 M HCl solution.
A novel electrochemical sensor based on a NiFe₂O₄/(S,N)-doped graphene oxide composite (NiF/GrO(S,N)) was developed to detect sibutramine (SBT). The composite material was successfully synthesized and characterized using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, nitrogen adsorption/ /desorption isotherms, and vibrating sample magnetometry. Results confirmed the formation of a nanocrystalline NiFe₂O₄ structure uniformly dispersed on S,N-doped graphene sheets, providing a high surface area and numerous active sites. The NiF/GrO(S,N)-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) showed improved electrocatalytic activity toward SBT oxidation. Under optimized conditions, differential pulse voltammetry revealed two linear ranges from 0.5 to 8.9 µM and 8.9 to 19.6 µM, with a detection limit of 0.37 µM. The sensor also demonstrated good repeatability, reproducibility, and stability, along with effective anti-interference capabilities against common inorganic and organic substances. The practical applicability of the proposed sensor was successfully demonstrated by determining SBT in seven commercial dietary supplement samples. The obtained recoveries ranged from 96.38 to 104.83 %, and the results showed no statistically significant difference compared with those obtained using the standard HPLC method. These results suggest that the NiF/GrO(S,N)/GCE sensor is a promising platform for the rapid and reliable detection of SBT in real samples.
There is a current need for rapid, selective and sensitive specific detection of Salmonella in food matrices. We demonstrate a technique for rapid single-molecule detection of Salmonella DNA based on an electrode surface-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based sensing of 48-base target single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) (CP014358.1 GenBank), chicken-juice matrix under 20 minutes. This is based on the covalent attachment of a probe ssDNA to pseudo-graphite. This sensor can be used in two different modes, without and with PCR, for lower limits of detection (LOD). The pseudo-graphite electrode is prepared for ssDNA attachment through the functionalization of its surface with carboxylate groups, which form amide linkages with amine-modified ssDNA. Without PCR, the probe-modified electrode is immersed in a sample complementary target matrix for 10 minutes, removed, and then placed into a solution of the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) intercalator, cobalt(III) tris-phenanthroline. Detection of dsDNA formation between the probe and target sequences is achieved via the SWV of the surface-bound cobalt complex. The LOD of this method is 2.0 aM for the target within 12 minutes. Lower LOD’s are obtained by conducting PCR on the electrode surface. The on-electrode (oE) PCR process uses a 20-base primer attached to the pseudo-graphite. A chicken-juice sample matrix containing target ssDNA (48 bases of Salmonella typhimurium) was directly added to a PCR master mix with a reverse primer, placed in a standard PCR vial, and thermocycled 5 times. The electrode with surface-bound dsDNA was subjected to the cobalt(III) tris-phenanthroline protocol with a LOD of 35 zM. This is one DNA molecule within 17 minutes in a complex chicken-juice matrix.
Efficient and durable electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline and seawater media are essential to advance green hydrogen production. In this study, a phosphorus and sulphur dual-anionic doping approach was utilized to synthesise bimetallic nickel-iron phosphosulphide (NiFePS) on Ti₃C₂Tₓ MXene-modified nickel foam (MXene/NF) via hydrothermal growth and phosphosulphidation. Structural analysis of the NiFePS/MXene/NF using field emission scanning electron microscopy showed the formation of well-developed interconnected flower-like architectures uniformly distributed across the MXene/NF substrate. Electrochemical properties of the material were analysed using linear sweep voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The NiFePS/MXene/NF electrocatalyst required overpotentials of 103 and 164 mV at 10 mA cm⁻² in 1 M KOH and 1 M KOH + 0.5 M NaCl, respectively, lower than those of the undoped NiFe/MXene/NF (228 and 223 mV). NiFePS/MXene/NF also exhibited lower Tafel slopes (223 and 166 mV dec⁻¹) compared to NiFe/MXene/NF (375 and 227 mV dec⁻¹) in the respective electrolytes, along with reduced charge transfer resistance (0.64 vs. 2.45 Ω in 1 M KOH; 1.17 Ω vs. 1.29 Ω in 1 M KOH + 0.5 M NaCl). The electrocatalyst also maintained stable operation at 100 mA cm⁻² for 24 hours in both media. These findings show that phosphorus and sulphur co-doping offers a promising strategy to developing high-performance NiFe-based HER catalysts for both alkaline and simulated seawater electrolysis.
Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter that regulates mood, memory, endorphin production, etc. Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that is extensively distributed throughout the central nervous system. High dopamine levels signify cardiotoxicity, which causes hypertension, heart failure and fast heartbeats. Conversely, reduced dopamine levels in the central nervous system have been connected with a number of neurological conditions, including depression, stress, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, the development of sensitive, selective, and trustworthy dopamine detection techniques is crucial for biomedical research and clinical diagnostics. Electrochemical biosensors have become a promising platform in analytical techniques because of their high sensitivity, rapid response time, low cost, and suitability for miniaturization. There have been significant advances in the development of electrochemical biosensors based on nanomaterial platforms for detecting dopamine over the past several years. Researchers have used advanced functional nanomaterials, including carbon nanostructures, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, conducting polymers, molecularly imprinted polymers and hybrid nanocomposites to enhance the electron transfer rate, improve the selectivity of responses and reduce detection limits on their biosensors. The most recent developments in electrochemical dopamine sensors from 2022 to 2025 are thoroughly reviewed in this paper, with a focus on nanomaterials and electrode engineering. Additionally, current issues are emphasized, such as sensor stability, repeatability and interference from coexisting biomolecules. Finally, future perspectives toward wearable devices, point-of-care diagnostics, and sustainable sensor materials are outlined.
The preferred tyrosine kinase inhibitor for treating gastrointestinal stromal tumours and chronic myeloid leukaemia is imatinib (IMT). Nevertheless, IMT has disadvantages, including resistance to the medication and notable variations in pharmacokinetics among patients. To address this problem, an analytical procedure for IMT determination was developed that incorporated MnMoO4@multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) into a carbon paste electrode (CPE) matrix to create an electrochemical sensing platform, MnMoO4@MWCNT/CPE. A hydrothermal technique was used to synthesize MnMoO4@MWCNT. Under carefully adjusted conditions, electrochemical characterization using differential pulse voltammetry showed a concentration interval with a linear response for IMT between 0.01 and 120.0 µM. In addition to a significant sensitivity of 0.3508 μA μM-1, quantitative analysis yielded detection ad quantification limits of 3 and 7 nM. The developed electrochemical probe demonstrated outstanding analytical performance, high stability, and repeatability when used to quantify IMT in pharmaceutical product samples.
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) provide a cohesive approach to treating hypersaline wastewater and generating renewable energy. This research assessed the efficacy of halophilic Bacillus clausii J1G-0%B supplemented with acetate, lactate, or citrate at doses of 10, 30 and 50 mM. The half-cell investigation included cyclic voltammetry, diagnostics of the rate-determining step, electron transfer rate constant (kₛ), pH profiles, and ammonia buildup. Comprehensive cell testing, including assessments of output voltage, peak power density, and biofilm mass, was also performed. In comparison to the control, all carbon sources enhanced the electrochemical response by 184.56 to 378.23 %, due to bacterial-electrode electron transfer, diffusion-limited kinetics, and the involvement of cytochromes a₃, b, c and/or c₁ in B. clausii. The MFC system generated an average voltage ranging from 33.64 to 77.87 mV and achieved a maximum power density between 19.19±3.11 and 58.16±3.54 mW m-². Within the tested range, the highest acetate concentration (50 mM) produced the largest electrochemical response, yielding kₛ of 1.888±0.002 s⁻¹, an average voltage of 486.94 mV, and a power density of 58.16±3.54 mW m-². The results demonstrate that targeted carboxylate supplementation significantly improves electron transport and energy recovery in high-salinity microbial fuel cells, underscoring its viability for waste cleanup and energy generation during energy shortages and environmental contamination.
This study examines the impact of operational parameters on the performance of a heterogeneous electro-Fenton process for removing a binary mixture of malachite green (MG) and methylene blue (MB) using iron-loaded bentonite clay (Fe-Bent.) particles as a heterogeneous catalyst. The effects of current density (j), Fe-Bent.* dosage (Bent. quantity variable) and Fe*-Bent. dosage (iron concentration variable), were investigated. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy were used to extensively evaluate the synthesized catalyst, confirming the effective incorporation and uniform distribution of iron within the bentonite clay. The results showed that increase of j enhanced dye removal efficiency to over 95 % for MG and 90 % for MB at 20 mA cm-². Furthermore, increasing the dose of Fe-Bent.* from 1 to 3 g improved the overall removal efficiency, although this was accompanied by a decrease in adsorption capacity and a deviation from ideal kinetic behaviour at higher loadings. Fe*-Bent. dosage with a variable iron concentration from (0.1 to 0.2 mM) exhibited the highest removal efficiency, while increasing to 0.3 mM resulted in decreased process performance. The comparison results showed that the electro-Fenton process alone achieved limited removal, whereas bentonite adsorption alone provided high but incomplete removal. In contrast, the heterogeneous electro-Fenton process achieved the highest efficiency (98.06 % for MG and 91.14 % for MB, with COD values of 84.53 % for MG and 79.82 % for MB), with the lowest iron leaching (<0.1 ppm), well below regulatory limits. These results demonstrate the clear advantage of the heterogeneous electro-Fenton process for efficient and environmentally friendly removal of mixed dye pollutants.
Electroless cobalt deposition and examination of how cobalt enrichment on the particle surface modifies the chemical composition and thermal behaviour of the commercial BNi-2 brazing alloy powder was investigated in this study. A multi-step surface preparation sequence involving oxide removal, Sn-based sensitization, and Pd activation was employed prior to cobalt deposition in an alkaline CoSO₄-NaH₂PO₂ bath. A design of experiments approach was used to evaluate the influence of plating temperature, cobalt sulphate concentration, hypophosphite concentration, and coating time on cobalt uptake. ICP-OES analyses showed that cobalt incorporation increased from 1.1 to 7.0 wt.% across the selected parameter range. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that coating levels up to 7 wt.% Co elevate the solidus temperature, while decreasing the liquidus temperature, resulting in a narrower melting interval. Thermodynamic simulations confirmed these trends, showing suppression of borides and enhanced γ/γ′ stability where γ denotes the Ni-rich face-cantered cubic matrix phase and γ′ represents the ordered Ni₃(Al,Ti)-type strengthening phase with increasing cobalt content. EDS mapping of coated powder showed continuous cobalt distribution at the particle perimeter. Overall, the results provided a quantitative basis for linking coating parameters to cobalt incorporation and corresponding modifications in melting behaviour.
In this study, the photocatalytic, electrochemical and photoelectrocatalytic performance of lanthanum ferrite (LaFeO₃) toward the degradation of the dye Turquoise Tiafix R2G was investigated. LaFeO₃ was synthesized via a sol-gel route and characterized by XRD, N₂ adsorption (BET) and SEM, confirming its perovskite structure. Photolysis experiments indicated that the dye is highly photostable under the irradiation conditions employed. In photocatalysis, different LaFeO₃ loadings (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 g L⁻¹) were tested under a 100 W halogen lamp, with 0.3 g L⁻¹ providing the highest removal, although the process remained limited by electron-hole recombination. In heterogeneous electro-oxidation with LaFeO₃ in suspension, current densities of 10, 15 and 20 mA cm⁻² were applied; 15 mA cm⁻² afforded the best compromise between activity and stability, significantly increasing the dye oxidation rate. The simultaneous application of irradiation and current in the photoelectrocatalytic process led to the highest efficiency, achieving approximately 95% degradation within 60 min. These results demonstrate a clear synergistic effect between photocatalytic reactive oxygen species generation in the LaFeO₃ suspension and electrochemical oxidant generation at the anode, resulting in a more effective oxidative environment. Thus, the optimized photoelectrocatalytic condition (0.3 g L⁻¹ LaFeO₃ and 15 mA cm⁻²) is a promising strategy for the treatment of effluents containing industrial dyes.
Reported benefits of ultrasound in alkaline water electrolysis remain difficult to compare because apparent gains can be influenced by thermal drift, inconsistent energy-accounting boundaries, and differences in reactor geometry. Here, we provide a conservative benchmark of ultrasound-assisted alkaline water electrolysis in a small, membrane-separated H-type cell operated galvanostatically in 2.0 M NaOH at 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 A. Silent electrolysis, low-amplitude ultrasound, and high-amplitude ultrasound were compared over a unified 300 s window while maintaining the catholyte near the hydrogen-evolving electrode at 32-34 °C. Under these tightly controlled conditions, ultrasound produced small but consistent device-internal effects: collected H₂ output increased by about 1 %, purity-corrected Faradaic efficiency remained essentially unchanged at around 66 %, and the average cell voltage decreased by approximately 0.09 to 0.29 V, corresponding to a 1.6 to 2.1 % reduction in specific electrical energy consumption on an electrolyzer-electrical basis. These results are most consistent with relief of bubble-related and near-electrode transport losses, rather than the emergence of a new reaction pathway or a large change in intrinsic reaction kinetics. At 1.0 A, varying ultrasonic amplitude further indicated a practical operating window in which moderate ultrasound minimized electrolyzer-electrical SEC, whereas higher amplitude maximized instantaneous hydrogen throughput but caused visible graphite-anode degradation in the present geometry. The present results, therefore, do not establish a full-system energy benefit; instead, they provide a conservative, device-internal benchmark for assessing when, and to what extent, ultrasound may remain useful under rigorously controlled conditions. Future studies should extend this framework to reduced-gap cells, advanced electrodes, and full system-level accounting that explicitly includes acoustic power and balance-of-plant loads.
In the present work, a voltammetric sensor for levodopa (L-DOPA) was fabricated based on Bi2MoO6 nanostructure-modified carbon paste electrodes (Bi2MoO6/CPE). Bi2MoO6 nanostructures were synthesized via the solvothermal procedure and characterized by X-ray diffraction pattern. The Bi₂MoO₆/CPE exhibited an enhanced current response for L-DOPA, which we attribute to the good electrocatalytic activity of the Bi2MoO6 nanostructures. Furthermore, the Bi2MoO6/CPE sensor was applied to determine L-DOPA in the presence of acetaminophen (ACT). The anodic peaks for L-DOPA and ACT were well-resolved in their mixture, enabling their simultaneous determination. The voltammetric measurements at pH 7.0 revealed distinct anodic peaks for the two analytes, located at approximately 350 mV (L-DOPA) and 530 mV (ACT). Using differential pulse voltammetry, a linear correlation was observed between the oxidation peak current and L-DOPA concentration over the range 0.02 to 590.0 μM. The limit of detection was determined to be 0.009 μM. The practical applicability of the Bi2MoO6/CPE sensor was successfully demonstrated through the assay of L-DOPA and ACT in real samples.
