The intersection of natural disasters and international diplomacy has gained increasing attention as humanitarian assistance becomes a strategic tool in foreign policy. While disaster response efforts are often framed as humanitarian necessities, they are frequently shaped by geopolitical interests, economic imperatives, and security considerations. This article examines the concept of disaster diplomacy by analyzing how states engage in humanitarian action to strengthen alliances, project soft power, and influence regional stability. Through a case study of the 2019 Albania earthquake, the paper explores how international responses—particularly from Greece, Turkey, the European Union, and the United States—reflect broader diplomatic dynamics in the Balkans. While disaster relief can serve as a catalyst for improved bilateral relations, its effectiveness in fostering long-term diplomatic stability remains uncertain. Despite growing academic interest in disaster diplomacy, critical knowledge gaps persist, particularly regarding the sustainability of diplomatic gains achieved through humanitarian interventions. The absence of a structured framework for integrating humanitarian aid into foreign policy planning complicates the assessment of its long-term impact. Institutional coordination challenges, the role of non-state actors, and the politicization of aid further influence the effectiveness of disaster diplomacy. This article highlights the need for comprehensive research on the geopolitical dimensions of humanitarian assistance and calls for better integration of disaster diplomacy into global governance frameworks. Strengthening institutional coordination, enhancing regional disaster response mechanisms, and conducting longitudinal studies on the diplomatic effects of humanitarian aid are essential for refining both policy and practice. Addressing these challenges will ensure that disaster diplomacy contributes not only to crisis response but also to sustainable international cooperation.
The present study primarily focuses on the extent of Emergency Management (EM) preparedness at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA), benchmarking best practices from leading Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) internationally. Methodologically, it has applied: (a) a systematic literature review over frameworks and international standards of EM; (b) seven international HEI comparative analyses based on available public plans, organizational structures, and EM protocols; and (c) empirical assessment that includes NKUA plus thirteen Greek HEIs through qualitative semi-structured interviews together with a quantitative questionnaire answered by 53 administrative plus technical staff having operational responsibilities in EM. The results expose major structural-operational deficiencies at Greek HEIs. There is no centralized EM directorate, interoperability with public authorities is limited, preparedness drills and emergency planning are conducted in fragmented ways, while systematic provisions for vulnerable groups are absent. In comparison, the international HEIs we studied - UC Berkeley, UBC, the University of Oxford, UCL, the University of Sydney, the University of Tokyo, and the University of Canterbury have integrated mature EM systems based on regularly revised Emergency Operations Plans (EOPs) as well as: multi-channel alerting systems, physical & cyber security 24/7, institutionalized drills and accessibility measures for Persons with Disabilities (PwDs). Considering all the above, a six-pillar organizational model is proposed specifically for Greek HEIs including: 1) institutionalized EM governance, 2) integrated 24/7 physical and cyber security, 3) preparedness drills and training programs on a constant basis, 4) ISO-and FEMA compliant interoperable EOPs (inclusive EOPs covering all functions and operations aligned with both international standards and best practices), 5) digital multi-channel emergency alerting and 6) formal cooperation framework with external authorities via Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs). This proposed organization for Greek HEIs is depicted in Figure10 through an Emergency Management Directorate and more specifically targeted policy recommendations listed inTable3. This study provides a framework for EM in HEIs, proposing preparedness and resilience measures thus adding to the existing relative literature. The flexibility of the proposed framework allows its implementation even in HEIs with fragmented governance environments or under resource constraints. A necessity for a transition from a reactive crisis response to proactive preparedness is highlighted by the findings of the study, aiming at structuring safe, resilient and sustainable HEIs.
This study explores how visual arts, when integrated in the STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) learning process, could affect seismic safety education among first- and second-grade elementary students. The results of this study show that when varied methods are used in the teaching process, students are able to understand and apply protective measures more effectively. It also shows that traditional rote-based teaching is less effective than interactive, interdisciplinary learning, which seems to significantly promote students’ engagement and critical thinking. This study suggests that an expanded use of the STEAM approach in educational curricula can improve young learners' safety awareness and preparedness for seismic events.
The advancement of military technology and the destructive power of modern weaponry have necessitated the development of strong fortifications. A fundamental design principle is the careful selection of the site, as geological and geotechnical factors significantly influence the propagation of shock waves and ground vibrations following an explosion. Additionally, the structure's design relies on various factors, including the desired level of security, the types of weapons involved, the topography of the area, and strategic as well as economic-technical considerations. This study aims to explore and enhance the geotechnical parameters and design principles in military fortification projects. When examining the history of fortifications in Greece, the Metaxa Fortification Line along the Greek-Bulgarian border stands out as the largest defensive structure ever constructed in the country. This monumental engineering project, was completed in just four years and was remarkably cost-effective for its time. It comprises 21 fortified complexes featuring numerous surface constructions and thousands of meters of underground corridors and shelters. The overall project integrated various elements, including road construction, tunneling, surface buildings, water supply, drainage, ventilation, lighting systems, and ditches. A crucial aspect of the design was the full utilization of the mountainous terrain and existing obstacles to maximize coverage and protection for the structures. Some of these forts remain intact today, serving as enduring evidence of the scale and significance of this fortification project. This paper presents a brief overview of this fortification achievement to highlight its innovations, which were pioneering for its time, employing techniques that have been adopted in modern fortification projects
In Samos Island, Aegean Sea, Greece, several diasporite and emery occurrences and idle mines occur. The major diasporite deposit is developed at the eastern part of the island at Mourtia, Mikri Lakka where there exist old mining works. The specific metabauxite is hosted, via a transition zone, in between marble of Mesozoic age which has been tectonically disturbed. The aim of the present study is to characterize the metabauxite deposit and to investigate its content in specific trace elements and especially REE and gallium. XRD, XRF and SEM-EDS analysis carried out in representative samples of the massive diasporite deposit, the transition zone and the associated marble. XRD analysis revealed that the marble is calcitic. The transition zone is mainly composed of muscovite, illite, kaolinite, quartz and calcite with minor amounts of diaspore, whereas the main ore body is composed mainly of diaspore, followed by minor-trace amounts of calcite, muscovite, magnetite, hematite and quartz. XRF major element analysis has shown that the ore body is rich in alumina and secondarily in iron oxides. The trace element analysis discloses a notable enrichment in Ga, some REE and zirconium. Gallium is not detected by SEM-EDS as any gallium mineral, and it is most likely being fixed in the lattice of diaspore. It is concluded that the derivation of all trace elements enrichments and the source of alumina from the Mesozoic rocks of the Ampelos Nape, which included originally sedimentary rocks, gabbro and volcanics. These rocks were weathered and altered under wet conditions releasing silica, alumina and iron, which formed bauxite deposits rest on a limestone substrate. Finally, the limestone-bauxite succession was metamorphosed and tectonically disturbed. Concerning the economic importance of the Mikri Lakka diasporite, it is noted that bauxite/diasporite deposits have a potential of hosting significant REE concentrations. The average gallium content of the Mikri Lakka massive diasporite is 79 ppm (max of 96 ppm), which is higher than the average gallium content of the bauxite deposits and occurrences of Parnassus-Ghiona-Oiti Greece. Both the REE and gallium content of the Mikri Lakka diasporite is promising to consider their recovery as byproducts during diasporite exploitation, despite the fact that its proven reserves in the east part of Samos are unknown.
In January 2004 a Mediterranean cyclone in the Aegean Sea seriously affected the north coast of Samos Island, damaged the harbour mole of a coastal village, and catapulted its building material along with heavy boulders to the inner harbour basin. This area was also affected by a 2020, magnitude 7.0 earthquake which produced localized tsunamis. The evidence from the 2004 cyclone, with boulders shifted from known positions and with known trajectories, can contribute to the debate for the causes of mobilization of coastal boulders because of storms, tsunamis, or their combination.
Greece has a large number of critical and strategic metal resources. The proven and indicated reserves of aluminum amount to 2.5 mt and their gross value €5.075 b. Those of chromium amount to 1.2 mt with gross value €4.320 b, while of cobalt are 129 th. t with gross value €3.348 b. The proven and indicated reserves of copper from Chalkidiki and Kilkis areas are approximately 3.04 mt and their gross value €24.776 b, while those of manganese are 2.25 mt with gross value €5.400 b. Molybdenum has been located in Pigi Kilkis with indicated reserves of about 7.7 th. t and gross value €326 m. Under mining are the vein type magnesite deposits of Gerakini Chalkidiki and North Evia. The total reserves (proven + indicated) of magnesite are 280 mt and their gross value €9.800 b. The most important lateritic Fe-Ni-bearing ores are those of Evia Island, Agios Ioannis Viotia, Lokrida Fthiotida, Mesopotamia and Ieropigi Kastoria. The proven and indicated reserves of nickel are 1.39 mt and their gross value €22.240 b. The Rizana/Lachanas porphyry-epithermal antimony deposit is considered the most important stibnite ore. The proven and indicated reserves of stibnite are at least 100 th. t with an average Sb content of 0.3 wt%. Copper, chromium, and cobalt present good prospects for mining. Platinum group metals (PGMs), with economic interest, are contained in the porphyry Cu deposits of Skouries Chalkidiki. Strymonikos Gulf, together with the neighboring coastal and submarine sands, is the most probable area for locating exploitable rare earth metals (REMs). There are excellent investment opportunities in the exploration and mining of Bi, Te, Ga, Ge, and In metals. The deposits of other critical and strategic metals of Greece should be adequately assessed.
Fossils constitute a significant part of Earth's biodiversity, holding considerable heritage value. With an aim of improving and enhancing dissemination of knowledge and by integrating augmented reality technologies, this paper presents an AR application to identify fossils in two fossil sites, that of Agia Marina (Aegina Island) and Rafina (Attiki peninsula). An application compatible to mobile devices that enables the user to identify the fossils in situ, promoting learning through interactive experiences. It offers virtual tours that transport users back in time to the paleo environments where these fossils were originally found. This application seeks to make science, and especially paleontology, accessible and engaging to a wide range of people. To achieve this, we employed advanced photogrammetry techniques. By utilizing these methods, we were able to create detailed and accurate 3D models of marine fossils and environments. This approach not only enhances the visual representation of these paleo-environments but also provides precise data for scientific analysis and educational purposes. The AFT project allows us to capture the intricacies of invertebrate species and their habitats, ensuring that their importance within the marine ecosystem is effectively communicated and appreciated by a wider audience.
The Argolic-Arcadian border range is built up by rocks of the Tripolitza and the Pindos Zones. Its tectonic architecture is deeply exposed in the area of the Xerias Window. Key structures are worked out in this article. The nappe-shaped superposition of the Tripolitza Zone by the Pindos Zone is obvious in the frame of the Xerias Window. The vergence of the key structures of the latter varies everywhere between W and SW, which proves a relative transport of the Pindos Zone as a whole in that direction. After finishing the nappe transport both Pindos and Tripolitza Zone experienced further, collective deformations, which are brought in a probable chronological order. Round about since Upper Miocene, the compressive stress of the Hellenides was followed by young extensional tectonics, which continues until today. Its influence on the development of the window and on the forming of its frame is described. The most important faults that can be related to the spreading tectonics are called within this investigation as Xerias Faults. Finally, the impacts of the strong regressive erosion, of the numerous landslides, and of the widespread slope waste both on exposing and on covering the tectonic elements are regarded.
Over the past few decades, numerous studies and technical surveys have documented a significant number of landslides activated in areas that had recently been affected by wildfires or floods, thereby suggesting a potential link between landslides and these phenomena. With the climate crisis exacerbating the intensity and frequency of wildfires and floods, understanding this link has nowadays become even more crucial and requires further exploration. This study proceeds along this path and establishes a comprehensive framework for rapidly evaluating the effect of a wildfire or a flood on the local landslide mechanism, as well as for effectively managing landslide hazards in the affected area. The proposed framework incorporates advanced Geographical Information System (GIS) tools, remote sensing techniques, and state of the art regional climate models, to assess landslide hazard and risk from wildfires and floods on the impacted area, as well as to offer vital tools for landslide management. Consequently, it provides a comprehensive and thorough assessment of the impact of these catastrophic phenomena on affected areas. Remote sensing and GIS techniques offer a cost-effective solution, as these methods, contrary to traditional in-situ methods, can be easily and rapidly applied even on large and complex areas. The integration of regional climate models also ensures the long-term viability of the proposed approach, as it takes under consideration the impacts of the climate crisis. As a result, the proposed framework contributes to scientists’ ongoing efforts in understanding the dynamic character of the landslides phenomenon that evolves and interacts with other natural disasters. Simultaneously, the results of the proposed methodology can effectively contribute to the local stakeholders’ efforts to promptly assess the relative impact and make informed decisions regarding the required mitigation measures. Wildfires that ravaged the Chania regional unit in western Crete, Greece, in 2021, are selected as a case study to highlight the applicability and effectiveness of the proposed framework.
The Aetolia-Akarnanian region, in Western Greece, is considered to be part of a micro-plate in formation, named the Ionian Island-Akarnanian Block (IAB), in the larger-scale Central Mediterranean tectonic context. The IAB accommodates the deformations between the surrounding tectonic structures that are the Corinth Gulf, the Hellenic subduction, the Kefalonia Transform Fault and the Apulian collision. This work presents the first results of a dense temporary seismic survey in the Aetolia-Akarnanian region (from the Amvrakikos Gulf to the Patras Gulf). Our local dense network has been designed in order to avoid gaps and to allow the recording of a major part of the Akarnania seismicity. With a semi-automatic events detection and picking program, we detected more than 15000 events from October 2015 to December 2018. With this important data set we constrained a 1D local velocity model. The comparison with the previous published models shows a possible significant velocity variation inside the region and especially at the Trichonis lake graben. Thanks to our data set and our velocity model, we precisely located 12723 seismic events with magnitude 0 < ML < 4.6, and a magnitude of completeness Mc = 1.0, that represents actually the most important catalogue for the Aetolia-Akarnania. Seismicity highlights specific seismic structures as clusters and a seismic plane below the West of Corinth Gulf that are briefly discussed.
Pliocene rhinoceros’ bearing fossiliferous localities are very limited in Greece. The rhinocerotid from the locality of Allatini, near Thessaloniki presented here, has long been cited in the literature but has never been studied in detail up to now. This taxon is represented by a single specimen, a radius of a sub adult individual, which is herein studied in detail to clarify its systematic position. Both morphological and metrical data suggest its assignment to the genus Pliorhinus, and more specifically to the species P. megarhinus. Pliorhinus megarhinus thrived in Eurasia from the latest Miocene to the Late Pliocene, however its records are restricted so far to a few localities, mainly in Italy and France. This is the first known occurrence of Pliorhinus in Greece resulting a slight enrichment of the local and European Pliocene Rinocerotidae record.
Two of the most well-known caves of northern Greece, Petralona and Maaras, were morphometrically analyzed. They were strategically chosen for this morphometric study because they represent caves formed by different speleogenetic factors, resulting in patterns that clearly discriminate them from each other. Caves can display substantial variation in their patterns, depending on the local geology, hydrogeology, tectonics, and other factors. These qualitative parameters of speleogenesis, such as geological and hydrogeological controls, can be reflected in a cave’s pattern. The different speleogenetic factors that create the patterns of the caves can be expressed in the mathematical indices, designating them as morphometrical tools for properly discriminating the two cave patterns. Petralona Cave falls into the category of a ramiform cave pattern. The cave’s hypogenic origin is also supported by meso-scale cave morphology, and the hydrothermal activity of the surrounding area. On the other hand, Maaras Cave has a typical underground river pattern. The horizontal patterns of the two caves were morphometrically scrutinized using Euclidean and fractal geometry.
During the last decades, the rapid progress of remote sensing data processing for their utilization in detecting locations of possible sites linked to hydrothermal alteration and ores has gained increasing attention due to significant time and cost savings. In this study, we present the findings of a joint remote sensing and laboratory examination of a mineralization zone induced by a granitoid intrusion onshore the islet of “Koutala”, in Lavreotiki, central Greece. Our objective is to investigate the potential of Sentinel-2 and WorldView-3 VNIR satellite data to detect and map oxidized ore zones and alteration minerals that are detected from laboratory analysis of samples and could be linked to Fe-Mn mineralization. Two approaches are followed, namely reflectance spectroscopy and spectral indices. In reflectance spectroscopy, the spectral signatures of all minerals detected in the study area are retrieved from spectral libraries. The signatures are resampled to Sentinel-2 and to WorldView-3 VNIR spectral bands. Continuum-removal is then applied and the diagnostic absorption features of each mineral are detected for each spectral band configuration. The dataset with the best spectral configuration for mineral detection is then used for the production of mineral maps using the corresponding satellite image. The second approach involves the calculation of spectral indices, namely ferric, ferrous iron and hydroxyl-bearing alteration, on reflectance spectra. The ferric iron index is applied to both satellite datasets while the two other indices require the use of SWIR bands and therefore, they can be only calculated on Sentinel-2 data. All results show that laboratory and satellite data analyses results are consistent and complementary. WorldView-3 VNIR data seem to be sensitive only to the ferric and manganese phase. Sentinel-2 data seem to be capable to detect and map all alteration minerals that are potentially linked to Fe-Mn ore, including both ferric and ferrous phases. The mineral absorption and spectral indices maps show that in the investigated area, there is significant mineralization related to the granitoid intrusion. Hydrothermal alteration is observed on the entire surface of the islet but it seems to be stronger at the eastern part of the islet where the granitoid/schist contact is located. It is the first time that (i) minerals linked to a potential Fe-Mn ore are detected on the islet and (b) the corresponding alteration mineral maps are produced from satellite data, revealing their spatial distribution and providing indirect estimations of the degree of their presence.
The purpose of this particular study is the assessment of landslide susceptibility of Heraklion prefecture area of Crete Island through geospatial analysis in order to present the general susceptibility zonation, so that it may be used as a basis in future extensive and detailed landslide susceptibility research, which will lead to the prevention of possible future landslides. In order to accomplish this task, it is essential to study the geological, geomorphological, geotectonic, hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics of the area, as well as the land use and compare this information with real landslide occurrence data from the study area. Based on this study it became clear that the area is defined by medium to very steep slopes and a geotechnical and geological setting that are extremely favorable for landslides. These reasons, as well as the fact that this prefecture is known to be the most densely populated prefecture of Crete Island created great interest in this area for research of this kind to prevent the loss of human life and the structural damage of properties. In order to study the landslide susceptibility of Heraklion prefecture, firstly, a geodatabase, which includes the landslide inventory, was created. The landslide inventory is consisted of previous landslides, which were collected from related geotechnical reports with all the essential spatial and descriptive information (such as locations and causes of the landslides). Furthermore, the necessary raster and vector data for the geospatial analysis of the area were obtained. Because the landslide susceptibility is a multifactorial problem it was decided to use a relating method to the problem’s nature, which was the methodology of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), as it is a simple and widely used method for similar studies, which makes it a great tool for this introductory study. In addition, this method was implemented in a GIS environment. For the purpose of the study, ten (10) triggering factors that cause landslides were defined, followed by the creation of a landslide susceptibility assessment map of the study area, depending on the influence of each factor. In accordance with this map, the highest susceptibility mostly corresponds to the mountainous regions of the prefecture. Finally, the success evaluation of the landslide susceptibility model was determined based on the frequency of landslide occurrences of the medium, high, and very high susceptibility zones. Consequently, the model was characterized as 90.48% successful, according to bibliography and the landslide inventory.
The Periadriatic Foredeep onshore Albania is the only Foredeep basin located in the frontal part of the Albanides orogeny bordering eastward the Adriatic Foreland. The recent neotectonic investigations and previously published ones prove the formation of Periadriatic Foredeep as a dextral pull-apart basin in the Middle Miocene (Serravallian), subsequently to the main folding and thrusting of the Ionian Zone, through the strike-slip faulting mechanism. The two elements that commonly lead to the formation of the Periadriatic Foredeep Pull-apart Basin are the cross-basin strike-slip faults of Drini Bay-Lezha and Vlora-Bishqemi, and the oblique normal faults of Durresi-Frakulla and Preza-Rova-Bishqemi. The infill consists of the Serravallian to Pliocene molasses succession up to 6 km in thickness. The Periadriatic Foredeep Basin is located between the South Adriatic and Tirana Marginal Basins. The development of the Periadriatic Foredeep finally led to the different evolution of both the Periadriatic and Tirana depressions with different structures and mineral resources. The Periadriatic Depression structure is built by an NNW trending narrow anticline and wide syncline lines. From southwest to the northeast, these lines are distinguished: Frakulla-Durresi anticlinal line, Myzeqe syncline, Lushnja-Golem Kavaja anticlinal line, Erzeni i poshtem syncline, and Preza monocline. The Myzeqe and Erzeni i poshtem depocenters are separated by the intrabasinal Mliku-Shkoza high. The Divjaka gas field and Patosi, Marinza, and Kuçova oil fields are well known in the Periadriatic Depression. The Tirana Depression is developed from the Tirana marginal basin eastward bordering the Periadriatic Foredeep. It is characterized by the prevailing continental and shallow-marine Miocene sediments (with coal-bearing fields in Tortonian and Messinian deposits) that formed a wide northeast verging asymmetrical syncline due to the Preza-Rova-Bishqemi backthrust. The Tirana Depression overlies the Kruja Zone substratum to the north of Tirana, and partly, the Ionian Zone substratum to the south of Tirana along its western limb to the east of the Rova anticline backthrust. Deformation of orogenic crust at the Albanides-Adria collision zone during Tertiary occurred and occurs into both levels: i) a basal fold-and-thrust system in the Ionian Zone, that accommodated an increasing amount of SW directed shortening, and ii) a structurally higher system of thrust faulting affecting the overlying structure of the Periadriatic Depression, that underwent a strong structural rearrangement.
An intermediate depth earthquake sequence with an unusually strong aftershock hit Crete in 1810 and was felt in a very broad area. This seismic sequence was believed to have caused a death toll of about 2000-3000 and destroyed a major part of houses in the wider Heraklion area. In this article we present an unpublished note for this earthquake sequence from the memoirs of Frangiskos Limbritis, military and political personality in Crete, and analyze certain other notes from Crete and conclude that the death toll in Heraklion which was mainly affected was of the order of 300 and that structural damage was smaller than what believed in the past and was mostly rapidly repaired, especially in the meizoseismal area which roughly covers the present-day Heraklion prefecture (max intensities VIII-IX).
Every year landslides cause many fatalities and destroy numerous infrastructures around the world. Due to their catastrophic results, scientific research studies are conducted, on a continuous basis, trying to determine the controlling and triggering factors, and to evaluate their contribution-weight to that phenomenon. In this direction, many of these studies use multicriteria decision analysis methods as they are quite effective and can be applied rather quickly. However, a large percentage of the new studies that use these methods, is usually devoted to the analysis of many previous research studies and the validation of their results, which usually leads to serious delays and requires significant resources. In this research, 82 relevant past studies are evaluated, and their results are integrated into a worldwide geospatial database, to present its potential as a decision-making tool, during the landslide susceptibility assessment. As it is revealed the results of its statistical and spatial correlation with the examined region’s prevailing parameters in a geographical information system environment, can provide critical indications- suggestions to a researcher and along with the applicability of the multicriteria decision analysis methods, that contain the use of other experts’ knowledge and experience, to lead to the rapid identification of the most critical landslide causal factors and the initial evaluation of their contribution-weight. These indications accelerate significant the whole process and reduce the risk for possible biased conclusions, which can render the whole method ineffective. Moreover, this study highlights the geodatabase’s potential to incorporate open-access data, from external spatial databases and to use them, during the process of the landslide susceptibility assessment.
Scenes of the legendary battle between Poseidon and the giant Polybotes, which occurred on the Greek island of Kos, are depicted on dozens of surviving ceramic objects. Poseidon is shown killing his opponent with his trident, while carrying a huge rock that he had ripped off the island of Kos to bury Polybotes. The legend is interpreted to represent a strong earthquake that caused a large coastal rock fall or rock avalanche. The oldest ceramics representing this disaster date from ca. 540 BCE. The disaster is interpreted to date from this time and was a major event that reverberated throughout the Greek world, triggering the imagination of its artists for several generations. Legend and ancient literary sources suggest that the event took place in southeastern Kos, near the then capital city of Astypalaia, located NW of Zini mountain. Geological studies show a large, relatively recent, rock avalanche on the steep coast on the SE side of Zini mountain. Possible tsunami sand deposits with reworked marsh foraminifera are found 7 m above sea level on NE Zini, only 1 km from the archeological site of the old city of Astypalaia and large boulders are stranded on the opposite rocky coastline up to 6 m above sea level. Noise and dust from a rock avalanche would have been terrifying for the inhabitants of Astypalaia and any tsunami would have overwashed the port at Kamari. In the absence of suitable geological dating methods, ceramics provide the best chronology for the event.
On March 3, 2021, a strong (Mw6.3) earthquake occurred near the towns of Tyrnavos and Elassona. One day later (March 4), a second strong (Mw6.0) earthquake occurred just a few kilometres toward the WNW. The aftershock spatial distribution and the focal mechanisms revealed NW-SE-striking normal faulting. The focal mechanisms also revealed a NE-SW oriented extensional stress field, different from the orientation we knew so far (ca. N-S). The magnitude and location of the two strongest shocks, and the spatiotemporal evolution of the sequence, strongly suggest that two adjacent fault segments were ruptured respectively. The sequence was followed by several coseismic ground deformational phenomena, such as landslides/rockfalls, liquefaction and ruptures. The landslides and rockfalls were mostly associated with the ground shaking. The ruptures were observed west of the Titarissios River, near to the Quaternary faults found by bore-hole lignite investigation. In the same direction, a fault scarp separating the alpidic basement from the alluvial deposits of the Titarissios valley implies the occurrence of a well-developed fault system. Some of the ground ruptures were accompanied by extensive liquefaction phenomena. Others cross-cut reinforced concrete irrigation channels without changing their direction. We suggest that this fault system was partially reactivated, as a secondary surface rupture, during the sequence as a steeper splay of a deeper low-to-moderate angle normal fault.
