Background & Objectives: Brain–Behavioral system, in the form of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), explains the nature of individual differences at bio–neurological levels and justifies individual differences in students' academic performance. According to RST, brain–behavioral systems are divided into behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation systems. Furthermore, academic self–efficacy strongly affects academic success in different stages of life. Our cognitive interpretations of our successes and failures affect our self–efficacy beliefs. Given the importance of the role of self–efficacy and behavioral–brain systems in all aspects of students' lives, especially training courses, it is necessary to pay attention to improve academic self–efficacy and behavioral–brain systems. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the relationship between behavioral activation/inhibition systems and academic self–efficacy in senior high school male students. Methods: The current study was of a descriptive–correlational nature. The study population consisted of all male high school students in Gonbad Kavous City, Iran. Of them, 230 students were selected by cluster sampling technique. The inclusion criteria of this study included being a second high school student of the three grades (tenth, eleventh, and twelfth), male, aged 15–18 years, and residing in Gonbad Kavous City. Furthermore, a signed informed consent form was obtained from the participating students and their parents. In addition, we observed the absence of biopsychological illnesses that impair function and the lack of specific medications use. All participants who failed to accurately complete the research questionnaires were excluded from the study. Measurement tools were the Behavioral Activation/Inhibition Systems Scale (Carver & White, 1994) and the Academic Self–Efficacy Scale (Jinks & Morgan, 1999). The obtained data were analyzed by descriptive statistics (mean & standard deviation) and inferential statistics, including Pearson correlation coefficient and regression analysis methods in SPSS. The significance level of the tests was considered to be 0.01 and 0.05. Results: According to the present research findings, negative and significant correlations were observed between behavioral inhibition systems and academic self–efficacy (r=–0.44, p<0.01) in the study subjects. There was also a positive and significant correlation between behavioral activation system and academic self–efficacy in the explored students (r=0.40, p<0.01). Behavioral inhibition system (β=–0.310, p<0.001) and behavioral activation system (β=0.274, p<0.001) could directly predict academic self–efficacy in the study participants. Conclusion: According to the research findings, behavioral inhibition systems and behavioral activation systems can directly predict academic self–efficacy in senior high school male students. By reducing behavioral inhibition and increasing behavioral activation, academic self–efficacy can be improved; thus, it is necessary to enhance academic self–efficacy among students.
Author Address 1. PhD candidate in psychology, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran; 2. Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran; 3. Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran; 4. Associate Professor of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran. *Corresponding Author’s Email: h-javidi@hotmail.com
Author Address 1. PhD Student, Department of Psychology and Counseling, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran; 2. Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology and Counseling, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran; 3. Associate Professor, Department of Psychology and Counseling, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran. *Corresponding author’s email: Ahasan.amiri@yahoo.com
Background & Objectives: Externalizing problems are associated with numerous unpleasant consequences, i.e., among the most frequent reasons for children’s referral to mental healthcare centers. Various factors were proposed respecting this issue’s etiology, ranging from genetic to environmental and familial features. However, mother-child interactions, and especially the mother-child discourse during preschool can impact the formation or reduction of numerous problems in such children. As per different theories, the components of the mother-child discourse are related to the child’s mental representations of attachment as well as the child’s narrative coherence ability. However, few interventions focusing on children’s behavioral problems have particularly addressed the significance of mother-child discourse. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of a formulated intervention based on the mother-child discourse model on reducing externalizing problems by reducing negative mental representations and increasing the narrative coherence of children with externalizing problems. Methods: This was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest-follow-up and a control group design. The statistical population of the study consisted of 4to 6-year-old children with externalizing problems in the kindergartens of the Welfare Organization of Tehran City, Iran, and their mothers in 2018. Twenty-six mother-child couples whose children had externalizing problems were selected using the convenience sampling method. After homogenization based on demographic variables (children’s age & gender, and the educational level & occupation of the mothers), they were randomly divided into two groups; 15 couples were assigned per group. At the end of the study, 3 couples in the experimental group (n=12 couples( and 4 couples in the control group )n=11 couples( were excluded. The inclusion criteria of the research for the mothers included having a diploma and the lack of anxiety disorders and depression based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5); for children, the same was an age range of 4 to 6 years, receiving a score within the range of externalizing problems (65-69) according to the Child Behavior Checklist (CBC; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001), and not taking psychiatric drugs. Then, the children were assessed by the CBC concerning externalizing problems. Moreover, the MacArthur Story Stem Battery (Emde et al., 2003) was applied to examine the negative mental representations of attachment and narrative coherence in them. Furthermore, the intervention sessions were entitled "intervention based on mother-child discourse", i.e., a short-term approach to reduce externalizing problems in children. This package was prepared under the supervision of child psychologists; the content validity method was used to validate the package. The study was conducted in seven 2-hour weekly sessions with 4 sessions for mothers and 3 sessions for the mothers and children. Repeated-measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni posthoc test were used for data analysis in SPSS at the significance level of 0.05. Results: The repeated-measures ANOVA data revealed that the main effect of time was significant on externalizing problems (p<0.001), the negative mental representation of attachment to the mother (p<0.001), and the child’s narrative coherence (p=0.020). Moreover, the main effect of intergroup was significant on externalizing problems (p=0.040) and the negative mental representation of attachment to the mother (p<0.001). Accordingly, the mean scores of the experimental and control groups were significantly different; however, children's narrative coherence was not significantly different between the two groups, suggesting that the change over time was the same for both study groups. Besides, the intervention for externalizing problems (F1.22=116.89, p<0.001, Ƞ=0.84), the negative mental representation of attachment to the mother (F1.22=165.00, p<0.001, Ƞ=0.82), and the child’s narrative coherence (F1.22=5.90, p<0.020, Ƞ=0.21) were significant. In terms of externalizing problems, the difference between pretest and posttest stages (p<0.001), and pretest and follow-up steps (p<0.001) was significant; however, there was no significant difference between the posttest and follow-up stages, indicating the persistence of the intervention (p=0.460). Respecting negative mental representation, the difference between pretest and posttest stages (p<0.001) and pretest and follow-up steps (p<0.001) was significant; however, there was no significant difference between the posttest and follow-up stages, reflecting the persistence of the intervention effects (p=0.170). There was a significant difference between pretest and posttest (p=0.010) and pretest and follow-up stages (p=0.040) in narrative coherence; however, there was no significant difference between the posttest and follow-up stages, demonstrating the persistence of the intervention effects (p=0.560). Conclusion: According to the present research results, the intervention based on the mother-child discourse model was useful for reducing externalizing problems, reducing negative mental representations, and increasing the narrative coherence of children with externalizing problems.
Author Address 1. PhD Student of General Psychology, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Shahroud Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahroud, Iran; 2. Associate Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran; 3. Associate Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran. *Corresponding author’s email: Asadzadeh@atu.ac.ir
Background & Objectives: Osteoarthritis is the most common articular and musculoskeletal disease, globally. It is the most prevalent complication in synovial joints, also known as osteoarthritis, osteoarthritis, and hypertrophic arthritis. The exact etiology of osteoarthritis remains unspecified. However, age, gender, genetic issues, congenital defects, overweightness, the overuse of joints in daily living activities or special occupations, severe physical activity, muscle weakness, structural abnormalities, and neuromuscular disorders are among the effective factors in this respect. Despite numerous therapeutic approaches used in patients with orthosis, no definitive non–surgical treatment has been found. Furthermore, the progression of the disease has continued and surgery is the last option for patients with an orthosis. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the effects of hydrotherapy on pain, Range of Motion (RoM), and Quality of Life (QoL) after arthritis replacement in elderly women with knee arthritis. Methods: This was a quasi–experimental study with a pretest–posttest and a control group design. The statistical population of this study included the elderly female patients in the age range of 55–70 years who were referred to orthopedic specialists in Shohada Hospital with grade 4 knee arthritis and undergoing one leg knee replacement surgery by a specialist in 2017. According to Krejcie and Morgan’s Table (1970), 40 patients with 6 months past surgery was voluntarily selected as the study sample. Then, they were randomly divided into two experimental and control groups (n=20/group). However, 4 samples in the experimental group withdrew due to familial and financial problems; subsequently, the experimental group sample size was reduced to 16 subjects. The inclusion criteria of the study, according to the opinion of the orthopedic specialist, were as follows: adopting a similar lifestyle (approximately equal extent of daily activities); non–regular or irregular use of steroidal and Nonsteroidal Anti–Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) within 2 months prior to entering the study, and osteoarthritis only in the knee joint. On the other hand, the study subjects' non–cooperation with the researchers and absence from >3 intervention sessions were considered as the exclusion criteria. Furthermore, before and after conducting the treatment, the Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) (Roos et al., 1998) was used to assess pain and QoL. Besides, an electro–goniometer was applied to measure RoM in the study participants. The experimental group performed 18 sessions of the hydrotherapy training program in 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks; each session lasted 45–60 minutes. According to the physiological rules, the study subjects first conducted warm–up activities, such as walking, marching, going forward, walking backward, stepping sideways (for 10 minutes). Then, lower extremity exercises were performed for 30 minutes, (stretching & non– weighted power movements, orderly). Eventually, the research subjects were allowed to cool down for 5 minutes and return to the baseline level. The obtained data were analyzed using Paired Samples t–test for intra–group and Independent Samples t–test for analyzing the differences between groups at the significance level of 0.05 in SPSS. Results: The results of the intergroup test indicated that after providing hydrotherapy training, the pain was significantly decreased in the exercise group (p<0.001). Accordingly, RoM (p=0.011) and QoL (p<0.001) were significantly increased in the exercise group. The results of the in– group test also signified that pain was significantly decreased (p<0.001) and RoM (p=0.001) and QoL (p<0.001) were significantly increased in the test group. Conclusion: According to the current study findings, hydrotherapy exercises provided positive effects on the study participants. Furthermore, due to the numerous benefits of water–based exercises to patients with knee osteoarthritis, they can be considered as a complementary and useful method along with other conventional physiotherapy and pharmacotherapy approaches. The achieved data highlighted the importance of the rehabilitation of patients with knee arthroplasty and similar characteristics and conditions.
Background & Objectives: Obesity is a metabolic disorder, characterized by increased body fat, as an essential risk factor for different diseases. A critical problem in obese individuals is overweight. Obesity is associated with less vitality, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, fatigue, and mood swings. Besides, obesity generally adversely impacts health and quality of life in individuals. Another issue encountered by individuals with obesity is low self–esteem. Defects in body image are also among the most common psychological problems in overweight subjects. A treatment method that can improve psychological symptoms in individuals with obesity that has received less attention from researchers, especially in Iran, is Group Mindfulness–Based Cognitive Therapy (GMBCT). Thus, the present study aimed to determine the effects of GMBCT on weight, body image, and self–esteem among obese individuals. Methods: This was a quasi–experimental study with pretest–posttest–follow–up and a control group design. The statistical population of this study included all obese individuals referring to the Mehr Psychological Counseling and Psychology Center in Tehran City, Iran, in 2019. Of them, 32 subjects were selected by the convenience sampling method. Then, they were randomly divided into the groups of GMBCT and control (n=16/group). The sample size was estimated as 32 subjects based on previous studies and considering a maximum standard deviation of 10, α=0.05, and a test power of 95%. The inclusion criteria of the study were presenting obesity based on a physician's diagnosis; the age range of 30–50 years, an educational level of diploma to MA; no chronic illnesses and mental health disorders based on psychologists’ approval as well as the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ–28; Goldberg & Hillier, 1979). Absence from >2 treatment sessions and the occurrence of major stress due to unforeseen events, such as the death of a first–degree relative or divorce were also considered as the exclusion criteria of the study. The required data were collected using the Body Mass Index (BMI), the Cooper Smith Self–Esteem Inventory (Cooper Smith, 1976), and the Body Image Questionnaire (Cash & Lavallee, 1997). The mindfulness–based psychotherapy protocol was performed in eight 90–minute sessions (two sessions/week) based on Kabat–Zinn’s training package (2019). In the descriptive statistics section, mean and standard deviation were calculated. In the inferential statistics section, repeated–measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni posthoc test were applied. Additionally, the research groups were compared concerning gender by Chi–squared test as well as age and BMI using Independent Samples t– test. The analyses were performed in SPSS at the significance level of 0.05. Results: The present research findings suggested that GMBCT improved BMI (weight) (group effect: p<0.001, time effect: p<0.001, time*group effect: p<0.001), body image (group effect: p<0.001, time effect: p<0.001, time*group effect: p<0.001), and self–esteem (group effect: p<0.001, time effect: p<0.001, time*group effect: p<0.001); these values were tested and followed up in the experimental group. The collected results also signified the effectiveness of GMBCT remained consistent until the follow–up phase for weight (p=0.69), body image (p=0.72), and self– esteem (p=0.81). Conclusion: Based on the current research findings, GMBCT was effective on weight, body image, and self–esteem in obese individuals.
Background & Objectives: Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is among the most frequent behavioral disorders in students. A factor influencing the improvement of parent–child interactions is Emotional Adjustment (EA). EA manifests with symptoms, such as the ability to control emotions and satisfy needs, relate well to others, and cope with failure. An effective component of students' education is Teacher– Student Interaction (TSI), i.e., among the strongest predictors of students' conflicts. Academic Adjustment (AA) also affects students’ mental health status. It is important to address students' behavioral disorders as the future builders of society, especially those with ADHD. Besides, there is insufficient information concerning the relationship between AA, quality of TSI, and EA in students with ADHD. Thus, the present study aimed to predict AA, the quality of TSI, and EA in students with ADHD based on the symptoms of ADHD. Methods: The statistical population of the current descriptive–correlational study included all students with ADHD referring to educational counseling centers in Tehran City, Iran, in 2019. Of them, 280 students were chosen by the convenience sampling method as the research sample. The inclusion criteria of the study were being an elementary schooler, obtaining a score of effort required, referring to counseling centers by the teacher or school principals, and having a normal Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The exclusion criteria of the study were >13 and <7 years of age; referrals to counseling centers by parents, and failure to complete the consent form for participation in the research. The following tools were used to collect the necessary data in this study: the Children Symptom Inventory–4 Questionnaire (Sprafkin & Gadow, 1994), the Inventory of Teacher–Student Relationships (Murray & Zvoch, 2010), and the Emotional, Social Wellbeing and Academic Adjustment Scale (Squington, 1990). Pearson correlation coefficient and regression analysis were used to analyze the obtained data in SPSS. Results: All components of ADHD (ADHD, impulsivity disorder) presented a significant negative correlation with AA in the studied students (p<0.001). Furthermore, the impulsive subcomponent indicated the highest (r=–0.54), and the attention deficit subcomponent presented the lowest (r=–0.31) correlation coefficient with AA. The subcomponents of attention deficit, hyperactivity, and impulsivity were significantly and negatively correlated with the quality of TSI (p<0.001). Besides, the subcomponent of attention deficit revealed the highest (r=0.46) and the impulsive subcomponent suggested the lowest (r=–0.34) correlation coefficient with the quality of TSI. Additionally, the components of attention deficit, hyperactivity, and impulsivity were significantly and negatively associated with EA (p<0.001). The subcomponents of attention deficit and impulsivity demonstrated a higher correlation coefficient (r=–0.45) and the hyperactivity subcomponent presented a lower correlation coefficient (r=–0.40) with EA. The results of multivariate regression analysis suggested that attention deficit (B=–0.227, t=–0.04, p=0.042), hyperactivity (B=–0.63, t=–3.97, p<0.001), and impulsivity (B=–1.03, t=8,67, p<0.001) could negatively and significantly predict AA. These variables explained 35% of the variance of the academic adjustment score (R2=0.35). Moreover, attention deficit (B=–0.58, t=6.41, p<0.001), hyperactivity (B=0.40, t=3.74, p<0.001), and impulsivity (B=0.25, t=3.16, p=0.002) could negatively and significantly predict the quality of TSI. These variables explained 29% of the variance of the quality score of TSI (R2=0.29). Besides, attention deficit (B=–0.76, t=–54–5, p<0.001), hyperactivity (B=–0.74, t=–450, p<0.001), and impulsivity (B=0.69, t=5.68, p<0.001) could negatively and significantly predict EA. These variables explained 35% of the variance of the EA score (R2=0.35). Conclusion: According to the present study results, the symptoms of ADHD were predictive of AA, TSI quality, and EA in the explored students with ADHD. Considering the effects of the predicting variables, education experts must pay attention to the symptoms of ADHD concerning education.
Background & Objectives: Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a debilitating behavioral condition that causes numerous adjustment problems for patients and their families. OCD usually affects the Quality of Life (QoL) of patients, especially young individuals. Besides, it is associated with other mental illnesses. Due to the high prevalence of OCD in our country and its socio–economic consequences, implementing effective treatment programs that can help reduce the symptoms of the disorder and increase the patient's QoL is of critical significance. No research has directly compared the effects of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) on the QoL of young women with OCD in Shiraz City, Iran. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare the effects of ERP and ACT on the QoL of patients with OCD. Method: This was a quasi–experimental study with a pretest–posttest and a control group design. The statistical population included all women with OCD who were referred to the counseling centers in Shiraz City, Iran, in 2018 and prescribed fluvoxamine (200–300 mg). Of them, 60 patients were selected by the convenience sampling method and randomly assigned to 3 groups of 20 individuals (ACT, ERP, & control). The sample selection lasted 3 months and was according to the psychiatrist's diagnosis of OCD. The inclusion criteria of the study consisted of the age range of 18 to 40 years, minimum diploma education, female gender, and providing informed consent forms to participate in the study. The required data in the pretest and posttest phases were collected by the World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire (WHOQOL– BREF; 1996). ERP was performed according to Stekette’s group therapy plan (1993) in 8 ninety–minute sessions. ACT was performed in 8 ninety–minute sessions based on Twohing’s treatment plan for patients with OCD (2004). The controls remained on the waiting list for treatment. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation as well as inferential statistics, including univariate Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Bonferroni post hoc test were applied in SPSS to analyze the collected data. The significance level of the tests was considered 0.05. Results: The obtained results suggested that after removing the pretest effect, there was a significant difference in physical health (p<0.001), mental health (p<0.001), social health (p<0.001), and environmental health (p<0.001) between the experimental groups and the control group in the posttest step. However, there was no such difference between the effects of ERP and ACT on improving the QoL and its components, including physical health (p=0.80), mental health (p=0.44), social health (p=0.48), and environmental health (p=0.66). Conclusion: Based on the present study findings, ACT and ERP improved the QoL of the examined patients with OCD.
Background & Objectives: Destructive moderating factors, such as infidelity and open relationships outside of marital life can detach the emotional bond between couples; they can also negatively affect the performance, stability, and continuity of marital relationships. One of the main reasons for the high divorce rate can be attributed to the issue of marital and sexual infidelity; an action that leads to instability in relationships and has been raised as a growing concern in Iranian society. It is essential to develop a measure of optimism and realism (not mere optimism) and to cultivate it, especially in betrayed women, to be aware of their ability to control the situation. By cultivating and strengthening this structure, we can take steps to reduce the adverse consequences of infidelity, including feelings of anger, shame, depression, helplessness, marital burnout, pessimism, and finally divorce. Paying attention to married life has been growing, as a healthy society is based on healthy families. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the effects of enrichment training for couples based on the Enrich model on optimism, marital burnout, and attitudes toward infidelity in infidel couples. Methods: This was a quasi–experimental study with a pretest–posttest and a control group design. The statistical population of this study consisted of individuals who were referred to the counseling and psychology centers of Sabzevar City, Iran, in 2018–19 to receive pre–divorce counseling. In total, 14 couples (28 subjects) were selected by the convenience sampling method. Accordingly, they were randomly divided into two groups of 7 couples (14 subjects) as the experimental and control groups. The inclusion criteria of the study included a willingness to attend regular and consecutive meetings, having at least a third grade of middle school education, not having bio psychological problems (based on the medical records in the counseling center according to the history of clients and based on the psychologist’s diagnosis), a history of at least one year of living together and not being divorced or separated. The exclusion criteria of the study included absence from more than two treatment sessions and not attending training classes and couples counseling. The experimental group received enrichment training for couples based on Enrich model (Olson & Olson, 1996) in six 90–minute weekly sessions. The necessary data were collected before and after the training sessions by the Attitude toward Infidelity Scale (Whitty, 2003), the Marital Burnout Scale (Pines, 1987), and the Revised Life Orientation Test (Scheier et al., 1994). The collected data were analyzed by Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) using SPSS. The significance level of the tests was considered 0.05. Results: The present research results revealed that by controlling the effects of the pretest, the provided training increased optimism (p<0.001), and decreased marital burnout (p<0.001) and attitude toward infidelity (p<0.001) in the explored infidel couples. Conclusion: The study data suggested that enrichment training based on the Enrich model was effective in improving optimism, as well as decreasing marital burnout and attitudes toward infidelity in infidel couples. Thus, this training can be used in counseling and psychology centers to improve the psychological consequences of marital infidelity.
Background & Objectives: Having a disabled child, in addition to financial pressure and high care burden, imposes extensive biopsychological stress on parents, especially mothers. Few studies in Iran have examined biopsychological and personality traits in the mothers of exceptional children before the child was born. The duty of parents, especially mothers in the family besides caring and educating their children, is to create a peaceful environment by establishing healthy relationships between family members, also help improve children’s independence; even if the child has exceptional conditions, such as intellectual disabilities, vision and hearing impairments, physical disabilities, and so on. Therefore, this study aimed to compare biopsychological and personality components between mothers with and without exceptional children. Methods: This was a descriptive–analytical and causal–comparative research study. The statistical population of the study consisted of all mothers with exceptional children covered by the Welfare Organization of Yazd City, Iran, in 2020–2021 (N=534 families). In total, 164 mothers with exceptional children and 164 mothers with Typically–Developing (TD) children were selected by random multistage cluster sampling method. The inclusion criteria for the mothers of exceptional children were the age range of 17–60 years and having more than 2 exceptional children, aged 7–17 years. The exclusion criteria for this group included having a motor or perceptual disability that interfered with the interviews and completing the questionnaire, dissatisfaction to participate in the research, and failure to answer the researcher's questions. The inclusion criteria for the mothers of TD children consisted of the age range of 17–60 years, having a child aged 7–17 years, providing informed consent forms to participate in the research, and completing the research questionnaires. To collect the necessary data, the Biological, Psychosocial Characteristics Questionnaires (Afrooz, 2004), the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ–28; Goldberg & Hillier, 1979), and the NEO–Five Factor Inventory (NEO–FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1980) were used. The study tools were provided to the explored mothers in two phases; the first one was distributed and collected before the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID–19) outbreak by attending homes and schools; the second one was distributed and collected after the COVID–19 outbreak through cyberspace or by sending it to the door of the house. The obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, & percentage) and inferential statistics (Chi–squared test & Independent Samples t–test) in SPSS at a significance level of 0.05. Results: The present research results indicated significant differences in marriage age, the type of marriage, educational level, occupational status, pregnancy age, physical illness, substance use disorders, psycho–emotional status during pregnancy, blood type, and the history of abortion or stillbirth between the evaluated mothers with exceptional and TD children (p<0.001). Additionally, the mothers of exceptional children presented higher levels of physical symptoms, anxiety, insomnia, social dysfunction, and depression, compared to the mothers of TD children (p<0.001). In addition, neuroticism personality trait was more frequent in the mothers of exceptional children, compared to the mothers of TD children (p<0.001). The mothers of TD children reported more personality traits of extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, compared to their counterparts with exceptional children (p<0.001). Conclusion: According to the current research findings, the mothers of exceptional children performed worse biologically, emotionally, and socially, compared to the mothers of TD children before the birth of the child. Moreover, their mental health and personality status were worse than their counterparts with TD children.
