This article examines why women remain outside paid employment in India using the follow-up questions in the Periodic Labour Force Survey 2023–2024 that record individuals’ reported reasons for not working and for being out of the labour force. The article distinguishes between reasons for leaving work among those who have previously worked and reasons for remaining outside the labour force. The results show that women’s exit from paid work is strongly linked to unpaid care responsibilities during the reproductive and early maternal years. Men’s non-employment, on the other hand, is largely associated with health, age and retirement. Among women who were out of the labour force, domestic and care responsibilities dominate their reported reasons across locations, classes and educational groups. The findings indicate that women’s non-engagement from paid work results from a cumulative process shaped by life-course transitions, care responsibilities, health constraints and labour market conditions. The article underscores the need for care-oriented social policies to address gender inequalities in employment.
This article examines the multi-dimensional ostracism experienced by transgenders in India and its impact on their health, psychological well-being and quality of life. Using a mixed-methods approach and both secondary and primary data, this study reveals that the process of deprivation among transgender begins in their families with the recognition of their unique gender identity and prevails throughout their lives. Rejection from family and inherited property rights, lack of education and quality job opportunities and existing social stigma together compel transgender to accept either sex work or begging as their means of survival. Though it is found that the incidence of income poverty among transgender is low, they are highly vulnerable to any economic shocks (like the COVID-19 pandemic). The prevalence of chronic diseases is also severe among them. Furthermore, it is noted that due to their disrupted living patterns and experiences of sexual harassment and assault, their psychological health is alarmingly poor. Hence, it is argued that a comprehensive rights-based policy that involves affirmative action, along with the rights to education, employment, parental land and property, is necessary to improve transgenders’ quality of life.
This article provides an assessment of Indonesia’s Permodalan Nasional Madani (PNM), the world’s most extensive, women-targeted, microfinance enterprise. It tracks the origins, growth, geographical reach, staffing, operational philosophy and ways in which it builds social capital in poor households all over Indonesia. The authors find that PNM, with its flagship programme Mekaar, has moved away from purely poverty alleviation, conditional cash transfers or basic-needs linked subsidies, towards adopting the latest thinking and research in poverty eradication and financial inclusion, centred on women’s empowerment. PNM’s rapid upscaling demonstrates an alternative pathway to microfinance expansion. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Indonesian government used Mekaar as a key policy instrument. Adhering to its philosophy of leaving no poor woman behind, during the pandemic years, PNM approximately doubled the number of active customers, almost tripled the amount of loans disbursed and instituted a sympathetic approach to loan recovery, while maintaining robust productivity and financial healthiness indicators. The example of PNM provides on-the-ground evidence that group-based women microfinance, combined with business and financial literacy empowerment, can produce high social and economic impacts, in addition to resilience against major shocks.
The study explores the relationship between economic conditions and the division of labour between men and women within households in India. It uses Time Use Survey data (2019) and uses bivariate and multivariate Tobit regression for analysis. There is a significant relation between the consumption level of households and time use, after controlling for individual- and household-level variables. An asymmetrical relation exists between economic condition of the household and the time-use pattern of the men and women members of the household. As the economic condition of the household declines, women spend more time on paid work, which is not offset by an equal fall in unpaid work time, leading to greater workload for them. Men’s time spent in paid work is less sensitive to the economic condition of the households, compared to women. Men’s unpaid household maintenance work time decreases when they belong to economically poor households, which is offset by allocating more time to essential activities such as collecting fuel and water. This leads to men's unpaid work time less sensitive to economic condition of the household. Other results are that the presence of preschool children leads to a rise in unpaid work time, while paid work time falls for women. The presence of male adolescents reduces paid work time significantly, while female adolescents reduce unpaid work time. Workload falls for urban women due to the reduction of unpaid work by reducing the time taken for home maintenance, fuel and water collection.
The COVID-19 pandemic is undeniably the most significant public health crisis in recent history, profoundly impacting nearly all population groups, including the most vulnerable, such as female domestic workers (FDWs). Inadequate housing, low-paid work, casual contracts, stigmatisation, humiliation and the dynamics of intersectionality result in social and economic insecurity, further decreasing their bargaining power for better working conditions. The present article seeks to understand the lived experiences of FDWs in India’s capital, Delhi, during the pandemic using critical ethnography and phenomenology as frameworks. Interviews were conducted with participants residing in different parts of the Delhi-NCR region. The data were analysed using Haase’s adaptation of Colaizzi’s analysis method (Haase, 1987). Findings showed the participants’ experience of the pandemic, focusing on issues of finances, uncertainty, identity and the sources of support they received.
The present study aims at understanding how the pandemics SARS (2003), H1N1 (2009), MERS (2012), Ebola (2014), Zika (2016) and COVID-19 (2019 and 2020) have impacted the economic well-being of people across 63 countries classified into different income groups for the period from 1990 to 2020. Panel regression using the least-squares dummy variables model (fixed effects model) and the random effects model has been employed. We have used the Hausman test to choose between the models. The robustness of the results of the fixed effects model was checked by dynamic generalised method of moments estimators. To have a comprehensive measure of well-being, we have computed an inequality-adjusted welfare index, which takes into account the environmental/ecological aspects of well-being, final consumption expenditure and discounts for inequality. It has been observed that pandemics like H1N1 in 2009, Zika in 2016 and COVID-19 in 2019–2020 have a negative and significant impact on the inequality-adjusted welfare estimate for the whole panel. Lastly, policy suggestions have been made for attaining a better sustainable society with enhanced levels of economic well-being.
Menstrual taboo continues to impact women’s lives across cultures in ways detrimental to human freedom and choice. Myths and taboos associated with menstruation are responsible for the violation of human rights and perpetuate women’s subordination as something natural and therefore legitimate. Today, scholarly deliberations have gone beyond the ‘whether menstruation is taboo’ debate. Phenomenological analysis, menstrual health, period poverty, and archaeology of menstruation are some of the examples of contemporary works on the topic. Scholars have also dealt with the relation between menstruation, human rights and agency. Various studies have shown a connection between menstruation and the curtailing of women’s agency. The present article is an attempt to consolidate the evidence on how menstruation erodes women’s agency. The article is based on a narrative review of available literature on menstrual taboo and human agency. The literature includes published research papers, book chapters, and national and international reports. The research ends up finding certain complex ways through which agency is robbed off from women during menstruation, such as the ambivalence of feelings regarding their identity, internalisation of heterosexual norms, and body alienation.
This article examines how economic class disparities shape learning outcomes among children. It uses data from the India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011–2012 to analyse the gap in educational achievement in reading, writing and mathematics between classes for children aged 8–11 in India. Additionally, it considers the impact of household conducive factors, child effort variables and school factors that contribute to achievement as well as in reducing the gaps between the socio-economic classes. The results indicate a substantial test score gap between the groups, with the gap between the comfortable and poor classes being 2.5 times higher than the gap between the comfortable and middle class. After taking into account the socio-economic status index, we find that there is a 50% reduction in the test scores gap between the wealthy and the poor class, and that the gap between the comfortable and middle classes is no longer significant in any test scores. Even after accounting for all covariates, the gap between the wealthy and poor classes is still significant in mathematics and writing; however, middle-class children perform marginally better than those from the comfortable class in reading.
This article analyses the gaps in food security among the Kharia and Kolha tribes living in Kusumi block of Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, India, and how these groups cope with food vulnerability at their household level based on a primary survey in six villages in 2024. Lack of constant income, absence or limited cultivable land, assets and unskilled human resources are some of the factors that perpetuate their food vulnerability. The efforts of the government to address their food insecurity through various food and nutritional programmes, especially the public distribution system (PDS), mid-day meal (MDM) and Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), have hardly reduced their food vulnerability. Instead, both these tribal communities adopt a number of food-based and non-food-based coping strategies whereby they alter their food consumption behaviour and enhance their capability to procure food. The strategies they adopt to arrest household food insecurity are both ‘proactive’ and ‘reactive’. Wild food and traditional food institutions still play crucial roles in meeting their household food security, and therefore, any step to strengthen these can allow them to access food resources sustainably. Proper functioning of the food provisioning systems like PDS and ICDS and recognition of Habitat Rights under Forest Right Act (FRA) 2006 can best ensure household food security of both the tribes.
Despite social reforms in the nineteenth century and several legal and programmatic efforts since independence, child marriage remains a persistent issue in West Bengal, especially in rural areas. West Bengal is not the worst-performing state in gender indicators, highlighting a paradox of high child marriage prevalence. Against this backdrop, this study aims to unpack the persistence of child marriage practices among girls in West Bengal. Drawing on data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS), it tries to explain the extent to which household poverty and women’s educational attainment are related to child marriage using an intersectional lens. Findings suggest that child marriage is common among all social groups in rural areas. Its prevalence is persistently high among both Hindus and Muslims. Higher levels of educational attainment, particularly above the secondary level, are associated with substantially lower prevalence of child marriage across rural and urban settings. Household wealth (women from wealthier families) is associated with lower prevalence only in urban areas, not in rural areas. Further, child marriage remains significantly lower among women with above secondary level of education, irrespective of economic status. The study suggests the importance of addressing structural and normative constraints alongside promoting girls’ education. Policy responses should focus on transforming gender norms, expanding educational opportunities, enhancing girls’ agency, and creating employment pathways, with interventions tailored to specific social and spatial contexts in West Bengal.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Index (HDI) is an important tool for measuring progress of a country beyond the narrow boundaries of macroeconomic growth, but does not include issues of sustainability as envisaged in the Sustainable Development Goals framework. In this article, we seek to expand the conventional human development paradigm to sustainable human development and prepare an index for its measurement. It can be used as a baseline to monitor progress at the sub-national level and bring out spatially and temporally comparable sustainable HDIs for the states of India. Our results suggest that Indian states with high conventional HDI do not necessarily score high on the sustainability front, and hence the gains may only be transient. A temporal comparison between the pre- and post-COVID periods indicates that the health situation took a hit during the pandemic. Horizontal imbalance across the domains of sustainable human development also points to unbalanced development in the country. A strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis was carried out and is expected to provide policy directions at the state level.
This research analyses the interplay of caste and gender concerning multidimensional poverty among agricultural labourers in India’s 15 agro-climatic zones. It analyses data of the National Family Health Survey rounds 4 (2015–2016) and 5 (2019–2021), focusing on 51,426 and 50,895 agricultural workers, respectively. The Alkire–Foster method, in accordance with the global Multidimensional Poverty Index, evaluates the levels of vulnerable multidimensionally poor, multidimensionally poor and severely multidimensionally poor across the dimensions of education, health and standard of living. Intersectionality analysis examines the connections between multidimensional poverty and variables related to gender and caste. Findings indicate the widespread existence of disparities in multidimensional poverty related to gender and caste. Women exhibit a higher likelihood of experiencing poverty compared to men, although the disparity has slightly decreased during 2015–2016 to 2019–2021. Scheduled Tribes exhibit markedly higher poverty probabilities in comparison to Scheduled Castes, whereas Other Backward Classes and General categories demonstrate reduced poverty likelihood. The models demonstrate strong statistical significance ( p < .05) and account for a small yet meaningful proportion of the variance in poverty. This study enhances the comprehension of the intricate relationships between gender, caste and regional influences in determining multidimensional poverty among agricultural workers in India, underscoring the necessity for focused interventions to tackle these enduring disparities.
The present research presents a case study of welfare outcomes among the horticulture farmers from the Hmar-dominated tribal area of the Lakhipur sub-division of the Cachar district in Assam. Using primary data collected from 335 farming households, the study attempts to evaluate the extent and character of poverty among the indigenous tribes of the region. By using a combination of the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Multidimensional Poverty Measure (MPM) of the World Bank, the study contributes to the literature by developing a Composite Welfare Indicator (CWI) based on Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), thereby facilitating a data-driven and holistic view of deprivation. The study finds that the incidence of multidimensional poverty is much higher than that reflected by monetary measures, thereby alluding to the inability of monetary measures to capture the full extent of deprivation in key capabilities. The severe shortage of sanitation, drinking water and health infrastructure in the study area clearly underscores the need for public interventions to reduce deprivation in these spheres. There is also evidence of sizeable asset poverty in the region, reflecting low living standards. The results indicate that households that depend solely on income from farming experience greater poverty than households that have diversified sources of income. This underscores the need for specific support measures for farmers in the form of Minimum Support Prices and crop insurance, along with efforts to enhance the scope for value addition in agriculture. The regression model estimated for identifying the determinants of poverty shows that outreach activities in the form of extension services and training help reduce the incidence of poverty among pineapple farmers.
This study investigates job-shifting patterns among delivery workers at Zomato and Swiggy using Roy’s self-selection model. It reveals that skilled workers transition from jobs with lower skill rewards to positions offering higher wages for their expertise. It also finds that these workers are attracted to jobs with greater wage dispersion, which better match their skill levels and provide enhanced earning potential. Primary data were collected from 1,243 delivery workers in five cities of Odisha—Sambalpur, Bhubaneswar, Rourkela, Cuttack and Berhampur—over various months of 2020, 2021 and 2022. The findings indicate that disparities in skill returns and wage levels significantly influence job transitions, with workers shifting to jobs that offer better financial rewards and align more closely with their expertise. This research underscores the importance of understanding how skill and wage disparities drive job movement to the gig economy, providing insights into labour market dynamics and the factors affecting job choice.
Efficiency in the health system can be referred to as the attained level compared to the maximum level of outcome that could be achieved using the given amount of resources. In a resource-constrained country like India, analysing the efficiency of the health system is of utmost importance, as limited resources must serve a vast population. In India, Tamil Nadu is a frontrunner in the provision of health services. The state of Tamil Nadu strives to provide quality health services to its people, for which improving the efficiency of health services is imperative. Therefore, this study analyses the efficiency of public health services among the districts of Tamil Nadu using a two-stage approach. In the first stage, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is solved, and efficiency scores are calculated using the selected inputs and outputs. In the second stage, the obtained efficiency scores are regressed on the selected explanatory variables that are expected to influence the efficiency scores. The DEA results reveal wide differences in the efficiency levels of public health services among Tamil Nadu’s districts. Among the explanatory variables, economic development, measured in terms of Net District Domestic Product, was found to be an influencing factor in the efficiency scores. This calls for the state to focus on regional development to achieve efficiency and provide improved health services to the people.
This article examines the regional disparities and socio-economic factors influencing rural women’s education and employment status in India. Using data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), which includes 73,175 rural women aged 15–49 years across India, the research explores the impact of demographic, economic, and geographic variables on their education and employment outcomes. The statistical analysis reveals significant regional inequalities in both education and employment status. The Eastern and Central zones exhibit the highest rates of women’s illiteracy and unemployment, while the southern zones show more favourable outcomes. Additionally, the study reveals that socio-economic determinants, such as age, marital status, household size, wealth index, caste and religion, significantly impact rural women’s education and employment prospects. The findings underscore the need for targeted policies aimed at reducing these gender-based inequalities, including access to education, vocational training and supportive infrastructure, while addressing socio-cultural barriers that limit rural women’s participation in the workforce.
The assumption of gender neutrality of budgets continues to be challenged by feminist activists, scholars, experts and practitioners. As public finance decisions have far-reaching implications, integrating feminist approaches in budgeting can go a long way in actualising positive change in the lives of women and girls, especially those from intersectionally disadvantaged backgrounds. Gender responsive budgeting offers great potential to do so. This article makes a case for strengthening gender responsive budgeting in India as an effective public finance mechanism for empowering women and girls. FY 2024–25 marked two decades since the formal adoption of gender responsive budgeting strategies by the Government of India, which is a significant milestone in India’s progress towards gender equality goals. This article takes stock of the progress on this front to date. Further, it explores the prospects for gender responsive budgeting in ‘indivisible’ sectors where much remains to be done, and outlines some actionable policy considerations for enhancing overall implementation of this strategy at the national and the State levels. Deepening and re-envisioning ongoing efforts in this direction can accelerate India’s progress towards achieving its gender equality objectives.
The construction sector in India was adversely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. This led to a re-examination of the rights of women construction workers, as the government’s support measures were largely limited to provisioning cash benefit transfers for registered workers. In this article, the authors explore how women respond to the exacerbated vulnerabilities of COVID-19 through strategies of agency in the absence of state interventions for women workers’ welfare at work and at home social systems during the pandemic. This qualitative multi-method study is based on field observations and semi-structured interviews with women construction workers at construction work sites in Chennai, the capital city of Tamil Nadu, during October–November 2020 and June–July 2021. Women workers exercise agency in a gendered construction sector through their everyday practices of negotiation of workplace relationships, wages and solidarities. Substantial improvements in work participation and social security in the sector require mainstreaming gender and enhancing structural empowerment measures for women construction workers in Tamil Nadu.
