The aim of this study is identification of primordial germ cells during their circulation in the blood stream and migration to the primary gonads in pheasant embryo. The blood was taken from stages 14-17 and genital ridge tissue was taken from stages 20-21 Hamburger & Hamilton. Primary gonads were acquired from stages 28-30 Hamburger & Hamilton. Primordial germ cells have been recognized by using histochemical and immunostaining methods. The current article specified that these cells are distinguishable based on their relatively large size, large nuclei and cytoplasm with defined boundaries. In blood smear, such cells were negative for alkaline phosphatase, while the circulating primordial germ cells were negative for stage-specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1). Further, the Periodic Acid-Schiff staining was negative or very weak. These cells showed a very weak or negative reaction to staining with Alcian blue. At stages 20-30 Hamburger & Hamilton, primitive germ cells might not be distinguished by alkaline phosphatase and SSEA1 immunostaining. Alcian blue and Periodic Acid-Schiff staining was either negative or very weak in these cells. According to the results of this study, primordial germ cells in all stages showed very weak or negative reactions to different histochemical and immunostaining techniques. We recommend that the use of routine hematoxylin and eosin staining yields better results for primordial germ cells identification.
Babesiosis in cats is a relatively unexplored tick-transmitted clinical entity, however, increasing numbers of cases highlight the growing importance of disease. The study was conducted from June 2020 to May 2021 to assess the hospital-based occurrence and clinical-pathological alterations linked to Babesia infections in domestic cats of Assam presented to Veterinary Clinical Complex (VCC), College of Veterinary Science, Khanapara, Guwahati. Suspected cats (n=50) were screened for Babesia infection by conventional microscopy followed by molecular testing. Additionally, the haemato-biochemical alterations in affected cats were also analyzed. An occurrence of 52.00% (26/50) was recorded for babesiosis in cats. Risk factor analysis revealed age to be significantly correlated with the infection, being highest in cats of >2 years while the other associated factors were statistically non-significant. Most consistent clinical manifestations were lethargy/weakness, fever, dark yellow urine and/or stool, diarrhoea, pale mucous membranes, dry muzzle, rough coat and inappetence. Hematobiochemical analysis revealed decreased haemoglobin, total erythrocyte and platelet counts, increased ALT, AST and bilirubin in affected cats, with data being statistically significant (p<0.05). Combined treatment of diminazene diaceturate and clindamycin along with supportive therapy led to recovery in affected cats except two with the cerebral form and severe anaemia. The present findings will assist clinician and field veterinarians while managing similar type of clinical cases and serves as valuable baseline data to conduct further research. Although treatment of these cases can be very challenging, but with proper evaluation of the haemato-biochemical findings, along with other diagnostic tests, can help in delivering rational treatment, especially in field condition.
Recent incidents of meat spoilage and outbreaks of meat-borne pathogens have increased, primarily attributable to breaches in the cold chain and insufficient preservation techniques throughout the supply chain. To address these issues, the current study focused on developing a natural preservation method using a chitosan film. Here, a nanoemulsion of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oil was prepared, and its morphology was studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Additionally, thyme oil nanoemulsions at concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, and 2% (w/v) were incorporated into various chitosan films for bioactive packaging, and the morphological characteristics of the films were analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The elongation at break (EAB) and water vapour permeability (WVP) of the chitosan film could be improved by adding the nanoemulsion in a dose-dependent manner. The antimicrobial activity was assessed in vitro against Salmonella Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) and Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 19111), and the film containing 2% thyme nanoemulsion (T3) exhibited the highest efficacy with the least bacterial counts (2.89±0.10 log CFU/cm2 and 2.00±0.00 log CFU/cm2, respectively). Similarly, the highest radical-scavenging activity (45.37±1.68%) was observed for T3. Owing to their significant effectiveness as bioactive films, 1% and 2% formulations were applied as aerobic active packaging on chicken drumsticks. The pH, microbiological characteristics, and sensory attributes of the control and different treatment groups were analysed over 15 days of refrigerated storage (4±1°C) to assess the overall meat quality. This study demonstrated that a chitosan film incorporating 2% thyme nanoemulsion significantly extended the shelf life of chicken drumsticks to 15 days during refrigerated storage, without noticeable sensory degradation. This bioactive film serves as an innovative green preservation method for extending the shelf life of uncooked chicken stored at 4±1°C.
The local cattle of Jammu is one of the unique cattle which belongs to hilly areas of Jammu. A major group of Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are the Toll like receptors (TLRs) which play a very important role in immunity of the animal. Therefore, the study was aimed to detect the polymorphism in TLR2 gene. The genomic DNA was isolated from blood samples of 50 unrelated local cattle of Jammu from different locations.Tetra primer amplification refractory mutation system- polymerase chain reaction (TARMS-PCR) using self-designed primers was performed to detect the SNPs. TARMS-PCR for TLR2 revealed three bands on gel (158 bp control fragment, 120 bp B allele, 100 bp A allele). The genotypic frequencies for AA, AB and BB genotypes and allele frequency of A and B alleles were 0.12, 0.64 and 0.24, 0.44 and 0.56, respectively. The calculated observed number of alleles (na ), effective number of alleles (ne ), observed homozygosity (Ho ), expected heterozygosity (He ), Shannon’s information index (I),Wright’sfixation index (FIS ), PIC values were 2.00, 1.9716, 0.5022, 0.497, 0.6859,-0.2987, 0.3713, respectively. The χ2 and G2 values for genotypes were significant. From the present study it can be concluded that there are substantial genetic variations and heterozygosity present within the local cattle population of Jammu province, which can be explored to formulate the effective breeding policies for genetic improvement, propagation and conservation of this important local cattle population.
Four wheat straw-based iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric complete feeds were formulated from commonly used feed ingredients containing graded levels of urea so as to replace 0 (U0), 15 (U15), 30 (U30) and 45 (U45) per cent protein. There was no effect on in vitro gas production, but methane production was decreased (P<0.05) by 10.6% at the highest level of urea inclusion in the ration (U45). The loss of GE in the form of methane was 9.25, 14.95 and 18.74 per cent less in U15, U30 and U45 rations, respectively, as compared to control (U0). The production of VFA was not affected but acetate: propionate ratio decreased with increasing level of urea in the diet. No difference was observed in protozoa population except total holotrichs, which was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the U0 ration. There was no effect of the urea levels on in vitro true digestibility of feed and the activities of different enzymes like Carboxymethyl cellulose, xylanase and protease. It can be concluded that upto 30 percent of replacement of feed nitrogen by urea, methanogenesis can be reduced leaving any adverse effect in rumen fermentation.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are an effective method for determining the genetic background of ICR outbred mice in the National Laboratory Animal Center, Mahidol University. We screened 20 SNPs on all autosomes and X chromosome. This method provides fast, accurate and reliable with high confidence for assessing the genetic background of the mice used in research. The SNP markers used in this study were obtained from publicly available SNP databases of inbred mice in the ICLAS Monitoring Center and were subsequently designed using MassARRAY assay design software. Tail samples from ICR outbred mice were collected for genomic DNA extraction. We amplified gene fragments using multiplex PCR and analyzed them through allele-specific primer extension, based on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). We described the 20 multiplexes PCR assays for detection with the Sequenom MassARRAY® system. The genetic monitoring reference DNA samples from inbred mice were analyzed for quality control, demonstrating 100% accuracy. The MassARRAY® TYPER 4.0 genotyping software automatically determined phenotypes based on peak heights and mass. Among the analyzed SNPs, nine SNPs provided a heterozygous genotype frequency. No deviation from Hardy – Weinberg equilibrium (PHWE > 0.05) was detected for all SNPs. All nine SNPs exhibited heterozygote deficiency, as indicated by positive FIS values. These polymorphic SNPs offer in this study provide preliminary insights into genetic variability and may serve as candidate markers for future validation and refinement of genetic monitoring within outbred strains.
Prevention of diseases by modifying the body’s immune system is considered the most important aspect of healthcare from a very early stage of human civilization. Before the development of modern healthcare, nature-derived and easily available materials were used for that purpose. Along with old techniques like the use of parts of specific medicinal plants and also of some animals, the use of self or animal urine, auto-haemotherapy, autologous vaccination, etc., many modern techniques are developed to modulate the immunity of the individuals. These include techniques like vaccination by the use of weak or attenuated microorganisms of infectious diseases, their nucleic acids, artificially synthesized immunogenic proteins, etc. Research is underway for the development of vaccines to control non-infectious diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, early aging (Senolytic), Type 2 diabetes, etc. Use of stem cells for different serious health problems, including cancers, is considered a highly valued area in contemporary research for modulation of immunity of the body. Along with proper validation of the commonly used techniques targeting mainly modulation of the acquired immunity, a detailed study is required on the old procedures as well as the techniques targeting modulation of the innate immunity of the body - like following of a designed lifestyle, food-drink-nature exposure-body clock maintaining style, minimizing psychological stress, etc., that influence the biological age of the individuals; effect of use of specific succulent fruits, vegetables, nuts and spice mixtures in the diet schedule as well as use of succulent biomedicines as preventive and curative medicines, etc.
The microbiome comprises a complex community of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and eukaryotic microbes that inhabit both the internal and external surfaces of animal bodies. These microbial populations exert profound influences on animal health and disease, facilitating metabolic processes, pathogen defence, immune system modulation, and a variety of other physiological functions. Consequently, their collective impact is integral to virtually all aspects of host biology
This study evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils (EOs) extracted from Cupressus macrocarpa (C. macrocarpa) and Thymus vulgaris (T. vulgaris) against selected multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial and fungal isolates originating from both veterinary and human sources. Using agar disc diffusion and broth dilution methods, we evaluated their potential as alternatives to conventional antimicrobials by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC). Time-kill kinetics and antibiotic interaction assays were also conducted. Both EOs exhibited notable antimicrobial activity against the selected MDR pathogens. Notably, T. vulgaris demonstrated superior antimicrobial efficacy, with lower MIC (9–25 µL/mL) and MBC (12–40 µL/ mL) values compared to C. macrocarpa (MIC: 12–40 µL/mL; MBC: 15–50 µL/mL). It also showed potent antifungal activity, achieving the lowest MFC (30 µL/mL) against yeast isolates. Time-kill assays revealed that T. vulgaris eradicated most pathogens within 2 hours, while C. macrocarpa requires up to 24 hours. Furthermore, antibiotic interaction studies indicated that T. vulgaris enhanced the efficacy of conventional antibiotics synergistically, whereas C. macrocarpa exhibited antagonistic interactions that may compromise antibiotic effectiveness. These findings underscore the therapeutic potential of T. vulgaris as a promising candidate for treating MDR infections and as a valuable adjunct to antibiotic therapy. However, caution is warranted when co-administering C. macrocarpa with antibiotics due to its antagonistic effects. Overall, this study highlights the potential role of essential oils, particularly T. vulgaris, in addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in both veterinary and human medicine.
The purpose of the study was to assess the impact of varying levels of shrimp meal incorporation on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, carcass traits and immunological responses of broiler chickens. Three groups of 56 chicks each were randomly selected from a total of 168 day-old mixed-sex broiler chicks and divided into seven replicates of eight chicks. There were three experimental groups: SM1 (2.5 percent shrimp meal), SM2 (five percent shrimp meal), and a control group that was given a diet devoid of shrimp meal. Weight gain, intake of feed, and feed conversion ratio were measured on days 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35. At the completion of the trial, carcass characteristics, gut morphology, and antibody titre were assessed. The study found that in SM2 group, final body weights and average daily gain were significantly higher compared to control group and FCR showed better in SM2 group compare to SM1 and control groups. SM2 showed significantly higher DM digestibility compared to SM1 and control. There were no significant effects on carcass traits.The height of duodenal villi (VH), crypt depth (CD), and the ratio of villi height to crypt depth (VH/CD) were not significantly different from each other. The jejunal VH in the SM2 group was significantly higher than that of the control groups (P<0.05). The ileum’s VH/CD ratio was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the SM2 and SM1 groups in compare to control group. The results of the study show that shrimp meal can be included at the rate of 5% in a broiler diet without compromising performance.
The present study was carried out to check the thyroid toxicity induced by fipronil in male Wistar albino rats and its amelioration with pomegranate peel extract. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were grouped in to 4 groups (Group I, II, III and IV) with 6 animals in each group. Fipronil was administered orally @ 10 mg/kg b. wt. in distilled water for a period of 45 days in group II rats and group IV rats fed with both fipronil (@ 10mg/kg b. wt.) and pomegranate peel extract (@ 200mg/kg b. wt.) for a period of 45 days. Group I and III animals were treated as vehicle (distilled water) and Punica granatum (pomegranate) peel extract control respectively. Pooled serum samples were collected at fortnight interval for checking the thyroid hormonal status. Fipronil treated rats showed significant (P<0.05) decrease in the serum T3 and T4 levels and increased levels of serum TSH. Histopathologically, severe degenerated and disrupted follicular lining epithelium with complete loss of architectural details of thyroid follicles and immunohistochemically, increased expression of BAX antigen was observed in the fipronil treated animals. Co-administration of Punica granatum (pomegranate) peel extract along with fipronil resulted in the increased T3, T4 levels and decreased TSH levels compared to fipronil treated group and near to control rats value. Histologically, thyroid gland of rats treated with fipronil along with Punica granatum peel extract showed restoration of thyroid architecture with minimal inflammatory changes, normal follicular epithelium and lumen filled with colloidal secretions. Immunohistochemically, ameliorative group showed mild immunoreactivity and decreased expression of BAX antigen. This study highlights the protective role of pomegranate peel extract in reducing fipronil-induced thyroid damage.
Medicinal plants have shown promising potential in treating reproductive disorders in livestock. Bael and curry leaves are an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and other minerals, which sensitizes the activity of reproductive hormones enhancing fertility in animals. 32 Anestrous Binjharpuri heifers were randomly assigned into four dietary treatment groups, with 8 cattle in each group. The treatments were T1: basal diet, T2: basal diet + bael leaves (50g/ day / animal), T3: basal diet + curry leaves (50g/ day/ animal), T4: basal diet + bael leaves (50g/ day/ animal) + curry leaves (50g/ day/ animal). The trial continued for 60 days, body weight was measured on the first and last day of the experiment. Blood samples were collected at the end to assess the blood chemistry, antioxidants and serum minerals concentration of the animals. Onset of oestrous and conception rate was assessed throughout the experiment. Results revealed that supplementation of bael and curry leaves significantly (P<0.05) improved body weight gain, antioxidants, mineral status and conception rate in Binjharpuri anestrous cattle. Serum triglycerides and total cholesterol were significantly (P<0.05) reduced in treated animals compared to control animals.
Collagen is the most abundant protein found in bone, cartilage, tendon, skin and other connective tissues of animals and humans. Collagen is widely used in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, wound healing and drug delivery systems owing to its biocompatibility, biodegradability and minimal immunogenicity. The collagen can be extracted by multiple extraction methods from low-value animal byproducts but the biomedical applicability mainly depends upon its structural integrity and purity which must be accessed before use. A total of 24, day-old broiler chicks were procured commercially and reared at Livestock Farm Complex, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, RGSC, Banaras Hindu University, Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India. The chicks were divided into three groups of 8 birds each viz. Group 1, Group 2 and Group 3 and were sacrificed for collagen extraction from their shank at 28, 35 and 42 days respectively. Chicken shank tissue was subjected to collagen extraction by alkali and acid treatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis using pepsin enzyme. The lyophilized collagen samples were analyzed for different molecular vibrations and spectral analysis using a Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer in ATR mode. The FT-IR spectroscopy analysis of the extracted collagen from each of the study group indicated the characteristic molecular structure, as evident by the amide peaks in mid infrared region i.e. 4000-500 cm-1. The study underlined the efficacy of extraction process by alkali and acid treatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis using pepsin enzyme and suggested that chicken shank collagen extracted by this method retains normal molecular structure necessary for biomedical application. The FT-IR spectroscopy analysis of the chicken shank extracted collagen using alkali and acid treatments followed by enzymatic hydrolysis exhibited well-preserved triple-helical structure which can be potentially used as biomaterial.
This compilation deals with recent records of paleoparasitology both in Old World and New World. Paleoparasitology study has been started very recently in 1910 when M.A. Ruffer described Schistosoma japonicum eggs in Egyptian mummies (dated 1250-1000 BCE). Since then, paleoparasitological records have been published even if in 21st century. Three types of substrates are used for paleoparasitological diagnosis. They are coprolites (fossilized faecal samples), skeletons and mummies. With the advancement of microscopic technique, molecular biology (after standardization of extraction of ancient DNA) and immunological technique accurate diagnosis has been feasible. This compilation elaborates usefulness of paleoparasitological study in terms of understanding of (i) dietary habits and migration of ancient people, (ii) change in living pattern, (iii) archaeological doubts about prior use of an ancient structure and (iv) primate heritage of human being.
Klebsiella pneumoniae is emerging as a major environmental mastitis pathogen, often linked with poor cure rates. The studies of K. pneumoniae associated mastitis in dairy cattle are very limited. The study was carried out to assess the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance pattern and biofilm forming capacity of K. pneumoniae in bovine mastitis in the Cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 155 milk samples were collected from mastitis cases and bacterial culture was performed. The bacteria was identified based on colony characters and confirmed by PCR. Further, the antimicrobial sensitivity assay, minimum inhibitory concentration and biofilm assay was performed in K. pneumoniae isolates to determine the antimicrobial resistance, and its resistance genes were confirmed by PCR. Among 155 milk samples, bacterial growth was observed in 123 samples, of which 78 (63%) samples had K. pneumoniae. The antimicrobial sensitivity assay revealed that the 91.25% of K. pneumoniae isolates were sensitive to enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxone and co-trimoxazole and 62.50% were sensitive to oxytetracycline and 100% were resistant to ampicillin and methicillin. The MIC of amoxicillin-cloxacillin, amoxicillin-sulbactam, gentamicin and oxytetracycline against K. pneumoniae were ranged between 125-500, 25-220, 200-400 and 75-500 μg/ ml, respectively. All K. pneumoniae isolates from mastitis cases were moderate to strong biofilm formers. All K. pneumoniae isolates contained ESBL genes, specifically blaTEM and blaSHV . Among these, 66% of isolates had a combination of both blaTEM and blaSHV genes, 24% of isolates had blaSHV and 10% had the blaTEM . The aminoglycoside resistant gene was detected in two isolates only. None of the isolates had the fluoroquinolone resistance gene (gyrA and gyrB), cefotaxime resistance gene (blaCTX-M-G1 and blaCTX-M-G2 ), sulfonamide resistance gene (sul1), tetracycline resistance gene (tetA and tetM) and the multidrug efflux pump gene (acrAKp). The K. pneumoniae was highly prevalent in clinical mastitis cases, and the isolates exhibited high MIC, biofilm forming ability and carriage of AMR genes. An integrated AMR surveillance to be implemented in future.
The freezing and thawing process during cryopreservation of semen decreases motility, compromises membrane integrity and impairs cell function, along with the fertilizing capacity of the spermatozoa. The present study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) as a supplement in semen extenders to improve post-thaw fertility of Barbari and Sirohi buck semen. For this study, 288 ejaculates were collected from both breeds, of which 30 best ejaculates from each breed were processed and cryopreserved using a standard protocol. Each ejaculate was divided into three equal aliquots. A tris egg-yolk citrate extender was utilized for dilution, to which varying percentages of PRP were incorporated. The first aliquot of semen was diluted with extender containing 0% PRP (G-I), the second with extender containing 7% PRP (G-II) and the third with extender containing 10% PRP (G-III), respectively. All the ejaculates were evaluated at pre-freeze, equilibration and post-thaw stages. At the pre-freeze stage, semen parameters did not vary significantly across different extenders. However, significantly higher (p<0.05) percentage of progressive motility (54.00±1.54,53.66±1.49), sperm viability (62.73±1.54,58.36±1.44) and plasma membrane integrity (51.63±1.85,50.23±2.43) was recorded during post post-thaw stage in Barbari and Sirohi bucks extender supplemented with 7 % PRP. The inclusion of 7% PRP enhanced post-thaw fertility and had a beneficial impact on the semen freezability of Barbari and Sirohi bucks.
Listeria monocytogenes is a pervasive pathogen that survives well in nature and recognised from various animal food including contaminated fish and fish products worldwide and in India.The presence of L. innocua, a non-pathogenic Listeria, indicates improper hygienic practices suitable for L. monocytogenes contamination in food.To detect contamination by Listeria innocua and monocytogenes in the skin of freshwater fish rohu (Labeo rohita), 234 swab samples were collected from retail fish markets of Kolkata (n=165) and South 24 Parganas (n=69) districts of West Bengal by standard microbiological and molecular biology protocols. One hundred four (44.44%) Listeria spp. strains were identified by cultural characteristics, biochemical tests, and PCR technique targeting genus-specific prs gene PCR, of which 6 (2.56%) and 11 (4.7%) isolates were detected as L.monocytogenes and L.innocua targeting the lmo1030 and lin0464 genes, by PCR, respectively. The occurrence of L. monocytogenes was found less in this study. Regular monitoring systems should be practiced to uphold the quality of Indian food and maintain food safety standards.
The sperm cryotolerence during different phases of breeding season for Gaddi bucks needs to be elucidated. Gross and microscopic characteristics of fresh, pre-freeze and frozen-thawed semen samples (n=149) to different climatic variables during Phase 1 (October-December, n=94) and Phase 2 (January-February, n=55) in Gaddi bucks were examined. Gross and microscopic characteristics of fresh and pre-freeze semen during both phases were similar. Contrarily, the ability of sperm to endure cryopreservation damage was remarkably reduced during Phase 2. Frozen-thawed semen during Phase 2 exhibited significant reduction in progressive motility and live sperms, while the morphological abnormalities increased significantly (p<0.05). Hence, semen cryopreservation in Gaddi bucks is conducive from October to December as compared to January to February.
Environmental contamination by heavy metals, especially lithium (Li) and lead (Pb), is of growing concern due to their increasing industrial applications and accumulation in ecosystems. This study investigated the cardiotoxic and systemic effects of individual and combined oral exposure to lithium carbonate and lead acetate in forty-eight adult male rats over a 28-day period. Animals were assigned to four groups: control, Li (20 mg/kg), Pb (20 mg/kg), and Li + Pb (20 mg each/kg). All toxicity groups exhibited clinical signs such as dullness, dehydration, diarrhea, hair loss, and foul-smelling feces. Electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities, including shortening of QRS duration, changes in P- and T-wave amplitudes, and sporadic atrial flutter in a few animals, suggest the presence of cardiac dysrhythmia in the treatment groups. Although no significant changes in heart weights or indices were observed, the Li + Pb group showed significantly elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO), alongside decreased total antioxidant capacity (TAC), suggesting oxidative stress. No significant change was observed in the antioxidant enzyme (SOD, CAT, and GSH) level in the treatment groups. Molecular analysis revealed downregulation of nrf2 and bcl-2, and upregulation of bax in the Li + Pb group, suggesting increased apoptosis and reduced cell survival. Interestingly, Pb alone upregulated bcl-2 more than Li, indicating a differential stress response. Histological examination showed no overt structural damage to myocardial tissue. These findings indicate that co-exposure to Li and Pb exerts synergistic cardiotoxic effects primarily via oxidative stress and apoptosis, warranting attention to combined environmental exposures in public health assessments.
The medicinal properties of Prosopis juliflora is reported in traditional medicines, albeit, its exact mechanism(s) of antibacterial action is largely unknown. Herein, we delineated the cellular mechanism of antibacterial activity of P. juliflora leaf (PJ) extract against pathogenic E. coli. isolated from uterine infections of bovines. The antibacterial activity of PJ extract was found to be initiated at 6 h post-exposure while the complete bactericidal action was exhibited at 12 h post-exposure. Further, relatively lower MIC values (0.39 mg/ml) against the clinical isolate of E. coli also support its prominent antibacterial action. Mechanistically, PJ extract produced substantial damage to the bacterial cell wall and interrupted cell membrane integrity leading to release of the intra-cytoplasmic contents and formation of vacuole resulting in cell death. Thus, PJ extract has the potential to be used as an alternative to synthetic antimicrobials to treat uterine infection. Further, it may facilitate the entry of other antimicrobials inside the bacterial cells, however, further research to determine its in vivo efficacy is warranted.
