The aim of current research is to develop an effective human-computer interaction framework for multiple remote tower operations. Five subject-matter experts familiar with multiple remote tower operations and human performance participated in current research. The Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) method is used to break down activities, scenarios, and tasks into single separate operations. The step by step breakdown of multiple remote tower operations included ATCO's operational behaviors involving human-computer interaction such as interaction with EFS, OTW, RDP, and IDP during task performance were noted. Designing and managing human-computer interactions require an understanding of the principles of cognitive systems, allocation of functions and team adaptation between human operators and computer interactions. It is a holistic approach which considers distributed cognition coordination to rapidly changing situations. The human-centred design of multiple remote tower operations shall be based on a strategic, collaborative and automated concept of operations, as the associated high performance of remote tower systems in conflict detection and resolution has the potential to increase both airspace efficiency and the safety of aviation. The focus is on the human performance associated with new technology in the RTC and the supported tools used by an Air Traffic Control Officer, to ensure that these are used safely and efficiently to control aircraft both remotely and for multiple airports. The advanced technology did provide sufficient technical supports to one ATCO performing a task originally designed to be performed by several ATCOs, however, the application of this new technology also induced huge workload on the single ATCO.
While many infrastructure industries in the world have undergone structural reforms, the provision of air navigation services as a part of aviation infrastructure was out of the trend for a long time. However, gradually, also the provision of air navigation services in several countries have been changed and structural reforms have been carried out. Due to structural changes, the historical model based on statutory multi-product monopolies in public ownership was changed, and third parties were allowed to participate in the provision of air navigation services and compete. Moreover, some air navigation service providers were (partially) privatised. Structural reforms could be utilised when achieving the goals of seamless single sky within the international groupings of countries for their single markets with air services.
In the past, air navigation service providers (ANSPs) have traditionally been owned, controlled and sometimes operated by their respective governments. In recent years, along with an overall reduction of public ownership in public utilities, a trend towards separation from the government and an +increased commercialisation of the ANSP could be observed. Rooted in the agreements and architecture of the Chicago Convention (1944), each state organised and regulated the ANS provision under a national monopoly through dedicated ANS Providers. In recent years, a trend towards a cautious opening of the monopoly markets and a partial liberalisation of the industry is observable and is also recommended by the European Commission through adjustment proposals to its Single European Sky (SES) regulatory framework. However, the development towards a more commercialised and competitive ANS industry requires a transition towards a more commercial management, governance and administration of the ANSP, a process commonly referred to as commercialisation. An introduction describing the origins of the vertically integrated ANSP is at the beginning of this chapter. To understand the underlying business structure of the ANS industry, the next section then introduces the cost-recovery concept and provides an overview on the key economic elements – the revenue generation and cost-structures – of an ANSP. This is followed by an overview on the various governance models of ANSP, as ownership and governance often determine the degree of commercialisation. How commercialisation impacts on the overall business models of ANSP and how a liberalisation of the ANS market is expected to change the dynamics in the industry is discussed and demonstrated through a case study from the private Terminal ANS (T-ANS) Provider ACR. This chapter, which has its focus on the European ANS market, will then conclude with a summary and an outlook on expected developments that can change the physiognomy of the ANSP business framework.
The capacity of an airspace sector is influenced by several factors, including separation standards, traffic complexity, airspace design, availability of systems for communication, navigation and surveillance, human factors, weather, etc. A distinction should be made between capacity in nominal and actual, often degraded conditions. Suppose an imbalance between capacity and demand is foreseen. In that case, actions need to be taken, first by acting on the capacity side (i.e. making the best use of available capacity), and only then, if needed, acting on the demand side. Air traffic flow management measures are techniques used to manage air traffic demand according to system capacity (i.e. ensure that available airspace capacities can accommodate traffic loads safely, efficiently and non-discriminatorily). Flight delays caused by demand-capacity imbalances in ATM may have significant cost implications for the affected airspace users. For example, the costs of en-route imposed delays in the European system were estimated at about 1.9 billion euros in 2018.
In addition to the overall level of charges, how charges vary by user type, the service provided, location of the service, congestion of airspace, incentives for technology adoption, and other factors has implications for the efficiency of airspace use and equity between users. Economic regulation that aims to promote economically efficient pricing in situations where competition is lacking may be concerned about the structure of air traffic management (ATM) charges. Relevant economic principles for structuring charges are identified. The structure of charges for terminal navigation services, in particular, the use of a location-specific pricing approach as opposed to a network approach incorporating a high degree of averaging, is discussed, drawing on experience in Australia and the United Kingdom. Other aspects of price structures discussed are disaggregation of en route charges, incentives for the adoption of new technology, and incorporating congestion charges into ATM charges.
Economic characteristics of the air traffic management (ATM) industry are examined in this chapter under a structure–conduct–performance framework. The demand for ATM services is affected by a high degree of variability depending on underlying macroeconomic conditions, regional influences, and unpredictable events. ATM is a network industry that operates under monopoly conditions. The costs of providing ATM are relatively fixed in the short run and are strongly influenced by the costs of employing air traffic controllers. In Europe, and some other regions, economies of scale in the provision of ATM support rationalization of air navigation service providers on efficiency grounds. Planning processes play a role in balancing capacity and demand. Performance monitoring and benchmarking are an important tool used in the assessment of ATM industry performance.
This brief introductory chapter outlines the importance of air traffic management (ATM) to the international community, national communities, and the aviation industry. The services comprising “ATM” and how ATM is distinguished from other related concepts, such as air navigation services, are introduced. A variety of ATM users and stakeholders are described. An overview of the issues associated with modern ATM provision explored in the book is provided as well as an outline of the structure of the book.
The air traffic management (ATM) industry is structured as a series of State-based monopoly providers, generally subject to economic regulation. There is increasing attention to liberalization of the ATM industry involving the introduction of more competitive pressures supported by more commercialized governance arrangements. Liberalization is seen as offering the potential to improve the performance of ATM and reduces the need for economic regulation. Experience with introducing competition into the ATM industry is examined. Terminal navigation services are a core ATM service where competition has been introduced primarily for control services at regional airports in some European countries and in the US. Major airports in the United Kingdom. The process involved in introducing competition is discussed, including barriers to introducing competition in ATM services.
Technological developments are giving rise to new entrants in airspace, which are having a significant effect on the air traffic management industry as well as on conventional aviation. Unmanned aircraft system (UAS) technology (“drones”) is emerging at a rapid rate giving rise to a vast number of new aircraft in airspace. Increased space transportation, including the development of commercial space services, is another source of new entrants into airspace. New technologies leading to an array of new entrants into airspace are requiring the development of new regulations and methods of traffic management, which are still evolving. Regulations covering standards and practices for UAS and spacecraft remain to be harmonized internationally. The different operating characteristics of new entrants require different approaches than those conventionally used in aviation safety regulation.
The modernization trends that have affected governance of air navigation service providers (ANSPs) at the national level are examined in this chapter. There has been a move away from direct provision of air traffic management (ATM) through government departments to the adoption of more commercialized approaches to the governance of ANSPs, including corporatization and privatization of ANSPs. Governance arrangements for ANSPs across the globe are identified and a variety of approaches to governance are discussed. The literature on the commercialization of ATM provision is reviewed. The reasons for commercialization of ANSPs are identified. Cooperation between the providers of civil and military ATM is important. Based on experience, some generally agreed principles of good governance in the context of the provision of ATM are outlined.
The technology associated with air traffic management (ATM) is complex and advancing rapidly. This chapter describes how ATM “works” and the issues involved in introducing new technology. A nontechnical description of the operational and technological characteristics of ATM is provided in a form that is suitable for a reader who is not familiar with the ATM industry. Technological and operational concepts relevant to understanding the economics, regulation, and governance of ATM are described. Characteristics of the navigation, surveillance, and communication infrastructure supporting ATM are discussed. The benefits from new technology, which drive investment, including environmental and safety considerations, increase capacity of airspace, and have cost implications for airlines, are outlined. The nature of ATM technology and the importance of aviation safety imply that there are challenges in introducing new technology, including the coordination and harmonization of changes technologically at an international level.
Safe navigation of aircraft in the air and on the ground is a primary outcome of air traffic management (ATM). There are strong linkages between the levels of safety in various parts of the aviation industry. Safety regulation of ATM needs to be seen in the context of aviation safety more generally. Economic incentives for aviation safety and the consequent justifications for regulation of safety are identified. The new performance-based concepts associated with aviation safety regulation are discussed. As an international integrated industry, the governance arrangements for aviation safety regulation policy and its enforcement are internationally based. Regional approaches to safety regulation include the International Civil Aviation Organization's program to assist developing economies meet their aviation safety obligations. Governance of safety regulation at a national level is discussed. Challenges associated with safety regulation of ATM are identified.
