In Guatemala, rainfall ranges between 700 and 5,000 mm per year depending on the region, with two seasons marked as dry and rainy. It is a country whose meteorological data show that there is a good quantity of water to satisfy the demands of its different uses and sectors, but a weak regulatory framework and inefficient management cause many regions to face water scarcityWater scarcity amid this abundance. The situation is more visible in the metropolitan region where the availability of water is 191 m3/person/year, well below the 1.700 m3/person/year that has been established as a reference for avoiding water stressWater stress. Currently, there is no specific law that regulates the use and exploitation of water in the country. Despite the multiple law proposals during the last 30 years by different sectors, none have been approved by the country's Congress. This lack of legal framework coupled with the high contamination of surface water sources due to deficient sanitation, makes the supply from private wells the primary alternative option at the municipal level and for companies and residential areas that can afford it, since they are allowed to drill their own well without considering the proximity to each other or the overexploitation of the underground water resources. Since 2018, FUNCAGUA has been working on monitoring piezometric levels in the metropolitan region of Guatemala, generating data that has made it possible to observe the decrease in groundwater levels over time. In this context, different techniques for the supply of water and/or mitigation of the extraction of underground water resources have emerged, such as rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting applied in schools and in municipal markets, a new architectural vision for the use of water from rain in private homes, a pilot project for the managed aquifer rechargeManaged aquifer recharge through dry wells that seek to generate technical guidelines for this type of intervention at the local level; incorporating the learning of empirical experiences that were not documented in the country and the impulse that begins to acquire more technical and engineering solutions, provided by private companies that venture into providing advice and services for the management of rainwater and urban runoff in different projects in the country. These experiences have shown that: (a) rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting systems are a functional alternative in both rural and urban areas, whose implementation can be accelerated thanks to public–private partnerships, given that the cost of materials can be high; (b) the use of shallow wells to capture rainwater following certain constructive recommendations should be socialized and taught at the municipal level, adding the understanding of how rainwater runoff can reach the aquiferAquifers for recharge purposes and allowing to reduce contamination risks. In addition, better technical guidelines for recharge monitoring and estimation will transform current empirical practice into a truly managed aquifer rechargeManaged aquifer recharge approach; and finally, (c) technical options for stormwater management combined with groundwater recharge are available in Guatemala and begin to attract attention for different developments. Soon, these kinds of projects will gain visibility and be more valued as they address critical water scarcityWater scarcity and climate changeClimate change issues by enhancing water supply from the harvesting of rainwater as well as incorporating adapted water recharge approaches.
Groundwater Artificial RechargeArtificial recharge (AR) is considered as an alternative to safeguard groundwater against their overexploitation and quality degradation. This practice which has demonstrated positive results in many aquifersAquifers around the world could be helpful for water management mainly in arid and semi-arid areasArid and semi-arid areas such as Tunisia. Climate changeClimate change impact makes the situation even worse; it is expected that groundwater recharge will be reduced and groundwater salinization will be increased due to seawater intrusion. In Tunisia, AR experiments started since the 70thand it has been considered among the national strategy actions for water development since the 90th. Several techniques of AR have been used such as the infiltrationInfiltration of water throughout the unsaturated zone in basins or water course beds, or recharge wellsRecharge well. However, the AR amount which is dependent on the surface water availability is variable in space and time. Thus, the AR effectiveness is generally not achieved compared to the expectations. The total volume of water used for AR in Tunisia, was equal to 1026 × 106 m3 during 1992–2019. The annual volume used for the year 2019 was around 58 × 106 m3 which has been practiced for 30 aquifersAquifers, approximately. In order to quantify the AR impact, monitoring networks have been set up all around the sites to follow-up the groundwater level and water quality variability. A significant positive impact has been recorded in many cases, which has encouraged the decision makers to continue promoting the AR practices. The long experience of AR practices in Tunisia should be considered as instructive and could be further developed in order to achieve the maximum benefits. It will be interesting to put more emphasis on the assessment of their impacts in order to improve their effectiveness. Research actions using modeling tools coupled with new technologies, should be further developed in this context.
The average precipitation in Nigeria is 1,150 mm with a total internally generated runoff of 287 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year and a surface water resources potential of about 333 BCM/year. The internally generated water resources potential is estimated at 287 BCM/year, while the total water resources potential with inflow from neighboring countries is estimated at 375 BCM/year. About 88 BCM/year of water enters from neighboring countries, which roughly indicates that almost 24% of surface water resources in Nigeria rely on inputs from neighboring countries and the rest is from inside Nigeria. The total water demand in Nigeria for the year 2010 was estimated at 5,933 million cubic meters per day (MCM/day) which is 2,165 BCM/year, while by the year 2030, it is estimated to rise to 16,585 MCM/day, hence the need for alternative water supply from rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting and groundwater development. In addition to problems of water quantity, there are also problems of water quality. Pollution of water sources is posing a major problem for water users as well as impeding the maintenance of natural ecosystems. However, the management and development of the water sector face many challenges, including pressures on water resources and the increasing uncertainty being experienced with climate changeClimate change. It is therefore recommended that the National Water Resources Policy and regulations should be aimed at providing a framework for addressing all challenges through the application of effective Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and putting in place all that is necessary for effective and workable best international practices in the water sector. Finally, to meet the objectives of the policy and regulations, IWRM will be fully entrenched in all eight Hydrological Areas in the Country and should be operating successfully by the year 2030. Special variability of rainfall and the uncertainty imposed on rainfall by climate changeClimate change is becoming an issue. To address that a plan on rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting and recharging the aquifersAquifers artificially is to be framed for the entire Country. With increasing groundwater extraction, the space for recharge would also be available more as water levels are lowered, creating scope for recharging more water beyond the natural recharge.
Since 2005, we have developed compost toilets (dry toilets) as alternative toilets used by residents to reduce pollution in rivers and make efficient use of limited clean water. The advantage of this technology is that it is compact, and does not require large space and piping for the flow of clean water or wastewater. Sawdust is used as a natural microbial growth matrix/media to degrade feces and urine into CO2 and H2O. After 2–3 months of use, the mixed media with mineral residues can be harvested and used as compost. This study aims to investigate the feasibility and potential impact of introducing compostingComposting toilet technology as a sustainable solution for water resource managementWater Resource Management in urban slumSlum areas of Indonesia. By reducing the reliance on clean water for black water transportation, compostingComposting toilets offer a promising alternative that can alleviate the complexities associated with limited sanitation facilities and water availability. The study further explores the acceptance of the user communityCommunity, with a particular emphasis on the role of women in embracing and promoting composting toilet technology as an effective water-saving toilet system.
Contaminants of emergent concerns (CECs) are contaminants found in trace amounts in the environment that have not before been recognized and pose significant environmental and health hazards. Pharmaceutical and personal care items, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, disinfection by-products, and other CECs are among them. The current chapter describes the many contaminationContamination sources of CECs, encompassing point sources, as well as the kind of contaminationContamination, from the perspective of environmental health and safety issues. Traditional water and wastewater treatment procedures, as well as innovative remediationRemediation approaches, are thoroughly examined, together with their benefits and drawbacks. From the viewpoint of resilience and implantation, prospective solutions in the treatment of CECs such as nano-based adsorption, and membrane technologies are fully revealed. Sustainable management and treatment options, such as citizen science, regulatory, networking, and technical strategies that have been established for real-time application, are well-clarified for CECs in various environments.
Developments in the Zimbabwean water sector since independence were guided by the Water Act of 1976, a revision of the 1927 act, which legally disenfranchised the majority of black population with respect to accessing agricultural water.
This chapter emphasizes the importance of water conservation and management, focusing on regional and local water harvesting and water reuse as two effective methods for ensuring sustainable water use. Regional water harvesting involves the construction of structures such as dams, reservoirs, and recharge pits to capture and store rainwater, while local water harvesting involves the installation of rainwater harvesting systems on individual buildings. Water reuse refers to the treatment and reuse of wastewater for various purposes. These methods can significantly reduce water demand and pressure on existing water sources and help mitigate the effects of climate change. However, gender issues remain a significant challengeChallenges in water management initiatives. Women's limited access to decision-making processes and the burden of water collection often prevent their active participation and exacerbate gender inequalities. The chapter suggests addressing these issues by promoting women's participation in decision-making processes, providing clean water sources that are accessible to women, and involving women in the maintenance and operation of water management systems. The Women's Water Collective in Kerala, India, is presented as an example of a successful women-led organization that promotes gender equality in water management. The chapter concludes by highlighting the importance of addressing gender issues for the long-term sustainability of water management initiatives.
The Indian water supply system refers to the infrastructure and systems in place for the distribution and management of water in India. This includes dams, canals, water treatment plants, and distribution networks that supply water to households, businesses, and agricultural regions. In India, the water supply system comprises not only the physical infrastructure but also the governmental policies and regulations that oversee the utilization and conservation of water resources. The governing body or organization responsible for managing the water supply system is striving to earn and uphold the community'sCommunity backing for their endeavors to establish and sustain a dependable and uninterrupted water supply system in the country. This includes making sure that the communityCommunity is aware of the changes and benefits that the system will bring, and addressing any concerns or issues that may arise. This paper examines the water supply system adopted in India with its features in terms of technical and socioeconomic. Intermittent water supply can be challenging for households and communities as it can make it difficult to plan for and use water effectively, while continuous water supply is considered more desirable as it provides more flexibility and convenience. The primary objective of transitioning to a continuous water supply system is to enhance the availability of safe and consistent drinking water to every individual residing within the region.
The rise in the amount of microplastics present in aquatic habitats has developed into a major ecological concern in recent times. Microplastics are widely distributed in the environment due to inadequate rates of plastic waste disposal, a lack of standard detection equipment, and specific cleanup techniques. Studies indicate that microplastics, by absorbing heavy metals, pathogens, and chemicals used in polymer production, can spread pollutants. They are consumed by fish and other aquatic life and eventually reach humans at the top of the food chain. This leads to clogged digestive tracts, disrupted digestion, and reduced reproductive growth in living organisms. These consequences have increased the concern for microplastics as a potentially harmful new issue, which demands their regulation in aquatic media. The last difficulties in microplastic treatment systems are the detection and separation of microplastics from discharged effluent. This work provides a critical examination of current and newly created methodologies. The aim of this article is to investigate methods for detecting and eliminating microplastics, as well as the challengesChallenges they pose. By implementing a waste discharge standard that minimizes their effects on aquatic ecosystems, we can work towards reducing the overall impact of microplastics on the environment.
The increasing urbanization and growth in population has led to a rise in environmental pollution that harms communities by allowing municipal waste from homes, businesses, and industries to seep into groundwater and contaminate water quality. Leachate's composition can vary depending on location, making the choice of treatment method crucial. This work aimed to rate the ability of various extraction methods and the purifying abilities of plant extracts on the chemical and physiological parameters of leachate through the use of flocculation and Soxhlet methods in a dose-dependent manner. The results of this study showed that plant extract coagulantsCoagulant such as sago trunk, oil palm trunk starch, and jackfruit seeds are effective in treating leachate, including TSS, turbidity, COD, heavy metals, NH3-N, TDS, and color. It is essential to prioritize and continue to develop the use of these efficient natural coagulantsCoagulant in order to provide cost-effective solutions and stabilize leachate. By effectively treating leachate, the risk of groundwater contaminationContamination can be greatly reduced.
In this chapter, the effect of waste management practices on groundwater quality at the local municipality level is assessed. The case of Omaruru Municipality in Namibia was chosen to show the need for consideration of the interconnectedness of town (settlement) planning, land use, and human activities with groundwater quality, which is often ignored by researchers, municipal planners and water managers in Southern Africa. Based on the findings, i.e. a strong correlation between heavy metals found in soil and heavy metals found in groundwater boreholes, the research area's ContaminationContamination Factor (CF) ranging from 0.8 to 2.7, the geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) ranging from 0.003 to 0.7, and the pollution load index (PLI) of 2, which indicated contamination of the study area, the study found that municipal open dumping site contaminates groundwaterGround water sources within the river basinBasin.
Since the beginning of human history, available water quality has been a primary concern. The development of the industrial revolution and the accompanying rise in population has contributed to a dramatic deterioration in the quality of the world's water supplyWater supply, which has had disastrous effects on the planet's well-being. This dire condition has caused scientific brains to develop new technologies to address this issue. In the past two decades, various innovative water treatment technologies have been developed, evaluated, and introduced to the market. This chapter highlights advanced technologies like ultraviolet irradiation, ion exchange, nanotechnologyNanotechnology, membrane filtration, aquaporin, solar filtration, photocatalyst, and adsorption, which would provide a promising outcome soon. The water sector has traditionally adopted new technologies at a glacial pace. They still have a long way to go, but they have made significant progress in proving their dependability and viability in large-scale municipal water treatment facilities. This chapter focuses on the viability and use of these technologies in light of the socio-economic conditions of developing nations.
The need to find sustainable solutions to the gender-specific burden in developing countriesDeveloping countries requires context-specific engendering of the water and climateWater and Climate sector. This study aimed to address the inadequate contextual gender mainstreaming of water and climateWater and Climate programmes to promote adaptationAdaptation for societal and economic development in South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka) and Southern Africa (Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, and South AfricaSouth Africa). This is a secondary desktop review study augmented with the collection and analysis of data sourced from publicly accessible databases. The engendering was contextualized in line with three indicators ("the interconnected dots"), namely (1) water–climate linkages, (2) governance and policy systems, and (3) multi-stakeholder partnerships in the water–climate programmes. South Asia and Southern Africa have the highest female proportion of the total economically active population (49–68%, and 55–66%, respectively). However, relatively, high rate of unemployment among females was observed as a hindrance to the engendering process. The Women, Business, and Law (WBL) Index scores for South Asia range from 26 to 72 (below the global average of 76.5), and Southern Africa, 38 to 88. The representation of women in national parliaments varies in terms of the proportion of seats they hold, ranging from 4.9 to 27.7% in South Asia, and, 6.2 to 42.8% in Southern Africa. The proportion of women in ministerial-level positions has fluctuated between 0 and 22% in South Asia and, 12 and 48% in Southern Africa for the past fifteen years. The presence of women in decision-making processes alone is inadequate to ensure meaningful advancements in gender mainstreaming. For both regions, the law guarantees equal access to property yet, in practice, gender inequality in land and assets ownership, and inheritance exists. Analysis of the gender aspects of selected national water policies also showed that in most cases, gender issues are not considered in water management policies.
Microplastics are considered to be pollutants of emerging concernEmerging concern. A systematic method is required since it is a complex issue to attain the overview and negate management solutions that have peripheral outcomes. An important query regarding microplastics is the number of risks they can cause to the urban water systemUrban Water System. No risk assessment is available that considers the diverse properties of microplastics versus the natural particles. Herein, current trends of microplastic risk assessmentRisk assessment are illustrated along with the impact of microplastics on chemical risks in the water system. Risk assessmentRisk assessment frameworks were also summarized which include consistent risk characterization by aligning exposure and effect thresholds. Further in this review, various mitigation strategies were summarized to limit microplastic contaminationContamination in the urban water system. Numerous promising solutions are present for microplastic mitigation, irrespective of preventative actions and treatment depending on the source. The responsibility aimed at respective measures and influence on the entire urban water systemUrban Water System should be considered when developing a management plan for microplastics.
Food and water resources are pivotal factors for a sustainable tomorrow as they are centric toward improvising the human health and in the restoration of natural systems needed for support. Concentrating on the water-efficient methodologies in the production of food aids in threatening factors such as reduction of limited water resources, decline in the quality of soil, and unfavorable climatic conditions leading to water scarcity. The food sector has a huge impact directly proportional to the water resources, affecting the social and economic activity more than any other comparatively. Food production is facing a challengeChallenges by more than 72% among the communityCommunity to meet the global population demand. Analysis of Water Foot Prints (WFP) and comparison of common food sources in identifying the water usage and the wastages associated with Blue, Green, and Grey WFP's assists in the understanding of the current methodologies being applied in food processing and preservation and the ways of conserving water resources without compromising on pollution or harmful effects leading to water-borne diseases or water scarcity. Regenerative and organic farming methods in the field of agriculture such as aquaponic, aeroponic, hydroponic, and vertical farming are a few methods that aim to utilize water resources in a wise manner. The consumer needs to require transformational changes in the food and water sector to meet today's needs and ensure a better tomorrow.
New, sustainable, eco-friendly, and renewable energy-based resources are employed to generate water supply and irrigation services in developing nations. Solar energy, wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants, biomass energy, and geothermal energy provide a reliable alternative to fossil fuels, efficiently use water, and significantly reduce farming expenses. This chapter focuses on innovative and eco-friendly irrigation water delivery methods. In solar water pump systems, photovoltaic power is generated by hydrogel-based solar panels. Photovoltaic cells capture photons from the sun and transform them into electrical energy, which powers a motor that pumps out clean water. Water-pumping windmills like the ones shown here can be installed in isolated, windy places where other standard water-pumping methods are impractical. Mechanical wind water pumps use wind turbine generators to supply water to cattle, land drainage, fish farming, and agricultural irrigation. Most geothermal fields are found in rural developing areas with active agriculture, making them a suitable match to cut the cost of irrigation water transportation. Most geothermal sites are found in rural developing areas with active agriculture, making them an ideal match to reduce the cost of irrigation water transportation. After desalinating ionic water, geothermal energy can be directly used for drying crops and aquaculture farms. Slow pyrolysis of lignin-based bioenergy crops such as sorghum, sugarcane, reed canary grass, and others produces charcoal, water, and heat, hence improving soil quality. Geothermal energy can be directly used for drying crops and aquaculture farms after desalinating ionic water. Slow pyrolysis of lignin-based bioenergy crops such as sorghum, sugarcane, reed canary grass, etc., produces biochar, water, and heat, enhancing soil quality. Despite the hefty price, green hydrogen helps decarbonize the economic system and enhances the availability of pure water in aridArid agricultural lands. The new advancements and challengesChallenges of using renewable energy-based water supply for irrigation are covered in this chapter.
Water insufficiency is the main hindrance to socio-economic development in Southern Africa. Water accessibility changes as the quantity and quality get negatively impacted, thereby reducing the affordability and timely access to the supply services. "Desalination of saline and brackish water is a solution that can help reduce current and future water scarcity in many parts of the world" (Isaka, Water desalination using renewable energy. ESTAP and IRENA, 2013). This chapter is a review of groundwater desalination as an augmentation option for the SADC. The chapter puts more emphasis on the energy requirements and efficiency of the desalination process.
In the current scenario, more than half of the population is settled in urban areas, which serve as hubs of development, prosperity, and manufacturing. However, managing water resources in these developing regions poses a significant challengeChallenges in providing hygienic and efficient solutions. The most common challenges faced by developing countriesDeveloping countries include flooding and extreme weather events. This chapter aims to provide a critical assessment of emerging approaches to sustainable water treatment and management. We will discuss various types of membrane science techniques and advanced water treatment technologies within the context of sustainable water treatment. We will highlight the concept of the circular economy, the implementation of Sponge city initiatives, and decentralized solutions as key components of sustainable water management approaches. We will also explore various opinions on these factors and describe why the transformational agenda for sustainable urban water management perspectives has not yet been fully achieved.
