Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) constitutes a fundamental component of the Mediterranean cultural landscape, preserving material evidence of long-term human interaction with the sea. Despite its recognized value, the effective protection and management of submerged archaeological sites remain constrained by environmental vulnerability, limited accessibility, and fragmented governance frameworks. In line with the principles established by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in situ preser-vation and periodic monitoring are widely endorsed but unevenly implemented across Medi-terranean contexts. One of the main limitations affecting current management practices lies in the difficulty of translating heterogeneous observational data, environmental, material, and biological, into structured assessments capable of informing long-term conservation strategies andpolicy decisions. This paper explores the role of AI-enabled monitoring technologies as pol-icy tools for the sustainable management of UCH, arguing that AI-enabled autonomous systems can bridge the gap between scientific research, conservation practice, and heritage governance. Rather than focusing solely on technological performance, the proposed approach emphasizes the integration of AI within a structured assessment logic, in which data acquisition, interpre-tation, and evaluation criteria are explicitly oriented toward conservation relevance and deci-sion-making needs. Particular attention is devoted to the NERITES Project, a Horizon Europe-funded initiative aimed at developing AI-enabled autonomous infrastructures for underwater monitoring. Within NERITES, monitoring activities are conceived not as isolated measurements but as components of an integrated methodological process that supports the comparability of observations, the identification of degradation trends, and the formulation of evidence-based management actions. The study discusses methodological implications, governance chal-lenges, and policy perspectives relevant to Mediterranean underwater archaeology.
The present paper reports the preliminary results of the underwater archaeological investigations carried out by the National Superintendency for Underwater Cultural Heritage in the atrium of the so-called Villa con ingresso a protiro, located in the northern sector of the access channel to the Lacus Baianus, within the Marine Protected Area-Underwater Archaeological Park of Baiae. The research, undertaken as part of the project "Amphitrite: Underwater Archaeology for All in Digital Marine Parks", brought to light a hydraulic installation attributable to a fountain that originally adorned the villa's atrium. The research activities comprised a combination of high-resolution three-dimensional recording, stratigraphic excavation, and chrono-typological cataloguing of the architectural features. The integrated analysis of these data, complemented by a study of the fountain's hydraulic functioning and a morphological analysis based on comparable archaeological parallels, contributes to refining our understanding of the principal construction phases of the Villa, attributable to an initial stage dating to the late 1st century BC and to subsequent remo-deling during the Imperial period.
This short contribution presents some considerations that emerged following the recent restoration and museum display of the wooden anchor from the Roman Era, found in 1990 at the Lido of Tarquinia, published in 1997 by Valeria D'Atri and currently preserved in the "Museum of the Sea and Ancient Navigation" in the Castle of Santa Severa, on the northern coast of Rome. Coinciding with the restoration work, a new detailed analysis of the characteristics of the artefact was carried out with a reconsideration of the context of discovery, in the light of some new information gathered in the field and considering data from the most recent studies on the ancient sea level along the southern coast of Etruria.
This paper provides preliminary considerations on the study of Roman ports from a 'grand strategy' perspective. In recent scholarship, these liminal spaces have been considered only for their socioeconomic purposes rather than as infrastructures potentially constructed for multifaceted or more sophisticated scopes, such as control over and security of water and marine routes. In this paper, I examine the strategic significance of harbour in-stallations, through an exploration of historical evidence from Roman Adriatic Italy (200 B.C.-300 A.D.). I provide some conclusions on alternative scopes of these maritime structures by highlighting the fact that a more 'geopolitical' approach may shed new light on ancient harbour studies.
In August 2017, Israel Antiquities Authority conducted a salvage excavation near Sha'ar HaHadsh/the New Gate in the Old City in Jerusalem. A two-story building with six rooms was uncovered in the southern part of the excavation. The walls were coated with a thin layer of fine-grained white plaster. Pottery and glass artifacts dated to the Mamlukperiod. A ship graffito was incised into the plaster on the southern face of the northern wall (W120) of Room 2 (L111). The ship graffito dated to the Mamluk period is a rare, if not unique visual evidence of a Mamluk sailing ship found in Israel.
This study aims to provide a focus on Le Castella, a site known in Roman times as Castra Hannibalis, along whose coast, tion area of biocalcarenites and biocalcirudites are found. This exploitation dates back to the dence pertaining to these quarrying areas is particularly noteworthy for being distributed not only near the cliffs but also on the adjacent seabed, thus providing useful elements for examHolocene. The geomorphological and lithostratigraphic characteristics of the sedimentary deposits in this stretch of coastline make Le Castella the most important extraction area on of the quarry was indeed used to extract the blocks employed in the phrourion placed to control the southern sector of the Crotoniate chora, and whose remains were later reused on the islet in the structures of the Aragonese castle. The material extracted at Le Castella could in the article.
In 2023 and 2024, archaeological survey continued in and around the waters of the nature reserve at Vendicari in an effort to explore the long-term development of this distinctive southeast Sicilian maritime landscape. Through systematic diver survey, artifact quantification, and compositional analysis, this work reveals traces of the active community of traders, fishermen, warriors, and most recently beachgoers who have used these waters from antiquity to today. Building on insights gained from heritage questionnaires, these archaeological efforts also support a collaborative, community-based approach that can support the protection and enhancement of maritime heritage at Vendicari.
There are many factors that influenced the development of amphorae during the time of their intensive use. The increase in capacity certainly played a significant role, but it also led to an increase in weight. Therefore, in terms of efficiency, i.e., the ratio of capacity to weight, the more advanced types in the development sequence were not always more efficient. As the amphorae were under constant stress during loading, unloading and transport, and prone to ruptures and cracks, their strength was another significant factor. It depended on the quality and composition of the clay, firing temperature, but also on their shape. This study focuses on modelling the amphorae from two evolution lines, and two additional amphorae types, and subjecting them to several tests, in order to verify their mechanical strength. To accurately predict the damage, the adequate damage model and correct parameters were applied, which were determined in previous studies. Johnson-Holmquist damage was used as a damage model, while amphorae were subjected to vertical and lateral drop tests, as well as to pressure tests. The research is done in the framework of the NEREAS Project, supported by the Croatian Science Foundation.
The work presents a new interpretation of some data deriving from the environmental context and the cargo of the Fortuna Maris wreck, excavated north of Comacchio in the 1980s. Starting from the examination of the large lithic weight, a limestone centussis, through a rereading of the inscriptions on the object, we arrive at a possible attribution thanks to the epigraphic study and the comparison with stamps of amphorae documented in the Upper Adriatic. Thanks to the iconographic analysis of the mo- saic and sculptural documentation relating to weighing scenes, the relationship between the load of boxwood, present in the hold of the wreck, and the weighing instruments useful for the sale of wood. The petrographic archaeometric analyses, carried out using SEM scanning electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis with an EDS probe, made it possible to identify the provenance of the lithic block by contextualiking it in the Tremiti Islands. The union of archaeometric data, presented in the annex, with archaeological studies has made it possible to trace new routes relating to the timber trade in the Augustan era, recording the possible commission linked to Lucius Tarius Rufus, consulsuffecus and praefectus classis, inserting a new character in the complex story of Comacchio wreck.
In order t o make ports sa fe r , t he A nc ie nts had imagined a number of d evi c e s a ime d at closing and opening po rts o n demand. I n t he fi rst p art of this study, p ublis he d i n t he 2023 issue of t hi s Jo urnal , t he author discussed t he n o t io n of limen kleistos and tr ie d t o demonstrate that a limen kleistos was closed b y kleithra. This second and final p art of t he study fo cus e s o n chains, l ike l y a P un i c invention of t he e arl y 3rd century BC at t he latest. I t also examines other systems d evo t e d to restraining t he access of s hip s i nt o po rt basins. One consisted i n building a bridge b e t wee n t he towers e r e ct e d o n both sides of t he e ntranc e and i n s ome cases reinforced by chains. Another solution w as creating narrow e ntranc e s , s ome- t ime s associated with long channels. Eve ntuall y, t he association of an open roadstead and a small, highly d efe nd e d port, turned out t o b e t he best c omp r omi s e b e t wee n tra ffi c flow and s e cur i t y.
Ancient navigation and the sources of maritime law in the 2(nd) millennium B. C. From the archaeological excavation to the legal reality of contracts and maritime commercial practice. The investigation of a wreck and the interpretation of the excavation data referring to ancient Mediterranean societies - characterized by increasing levels of cultural-commercial interactions through seafaring brokers - does not always allow archaeologists to deduce the legal relationships underpinning the legal norms that protects goods and people during the space-time span of navigation. The history of law and its related disciplines may be regarded as ancillary tools for archaeologists interpreting the data from Late Bronze-Early Iron Age sites in West Mediterranean. This paper shall focus on a careful reconsideration of a selection of 2(nd) millennium B.C. texts referring to maritime liability and contracts. The study will also underline legal trends, outlining the legal sequence composing the maritime partnership, from the construction of the vessel to its return to the quay or, in the event of shipwreck, the legal effects in terms of maritime liability.
The island of Grado separates the upper Adriatic Sea from the lagoon of the same name which, due to the rise in sea level, now covers part of what was the outskirts of Aquileia in Roman times. Here probably existed a widespread port where the passage of cargo from larger ships to flat-bottomed ones that could more easily reach the urban port or travel the internal routes that interconnected the entire region took place. Until recently there were only a few timbers as evidence of the passage of ships in this area, but that changed last summer with the discovery of two new shipwrecks. In addition to these discoveries due to underwater archaeological research, the re-reading of data from an excavation of over a century ago on the Gorgo island made it possible to recognize the reuse of planks from a sewn boat. The set of all the nautical artifacts seems to identify a privileged route to reach the port of Aquileia through the inlet of Grado.
This article stands as the first section of a wider study about the technical solutions applied to balance the conflicting exigencies of an efficient traffic flow and access control in ancient ports. It will focus on the notion of limen kleistos, arguing that this concept is applicable to ports provided with closing devices called kleithra, which were common in the Greek world since the 5(th) century BC at the latest. It will discuss the available written evidence to determine the type of closing devices used before the advent of chains.
A series of underwater surveys in the Gulf of Pozzuoli, in the province of Naples, in the Campi Flegrei, have allowed the discovery of numerous hitherto unpublished buildings. A stretch of road, some cisterns, a portico, a quay with two flights of stairs and a slipway and a series of warehouses belonging to the port of ancient Puteoli. Other buildings, of uncertain destination, show flights of marble stairs, cisterns and environments with a very articulated shape.
Naval images, ideas and notes by Leonardo da Vinci.The first part of this essay1 dealt mainly with the general Leonardo da Vinci's approach to naval technical, scientific and artistical items; the present part aims to complete the naval subjects approached by him, particularly in relation to machines and weapons. The latter are most indebted to its precursors, such as Mariano di Jacopo (Taccola) and Francesco di Giorgio Martini. Leonardo sketched and made notes of a dredge built on two coupled boats and developed the concept of paddle boats, trying to improve the movement of the paddles by means of a pedal system with a crank. He imagined a hull with a double planking, that could withstand ramming or other similar events; on the same page he proposed a peculiar ramming ship with a central turret. Through sketches and notes, he also proposed a ramming galley, quoting in detail its shape, dimensions and oaring system. He created drawings of galleys and boats and imagined peculiar types of sickled and ramming galleys, basically based upon Taccola's and Francesco di Giorgio Martini's drawings. Few months after Leonardo's arrival in Milan a peculiar warship was used on the Po River: it was made of two paired oared river ships (also known as galleons), which carried a huge tower. Its reconstruction is proposed here. His military proposals concern generally assault means, such as the mentioned ramming galley, a fast gunboat, a submarine and individual underwater equipment. Then Leonardo imagined exploding shells, a scythed shell to cut riggings and sails of the enemy's ships; in addition to these items, he focused on single types of artilleries, about which he appears to have looked more at the past, or at his present times, rather than at developments for the future. Although he created a sort of barrier against the dissemination of his ideas, occasional reminiscences of them can be found in the sheltered galleys used in 1503 on Lake Maggiore and, after his death, in a submarine built by Cesare Cesariano around 1521. Within his fragmentary notes it is challenging for us to distinguish between actual projects and extemporary notes and ideas, therefore in many cases it is difficult for us to propose reconstructions. But, notwithstanding these facts and the loss of many of his notes and drawings, we recognize a cultural path, from his early notes, from previous treatises to the reproduction of reality, to the investigations on the physics of floating bodies in motion and of sails. In parallel he improved his naval graphics both technically and artistically and came very close to the technical representation of hulls. However, he was not interested in building techniques, nor did he know the concepts of his contemporary boatbuilders. Leonardo came very close to understanding some concepts of naval architecture, but he did not fully grasp the steps required to achieve it. His main interests lay elsewhere.
The Montefortino helmet type with apical decorations from the sea of Sicily.The recent discovery of three helmets with apical decorations at the site of the Battle of the Egadi, which occurred at the end of the First Punic War (241 BC), has led to reconsider other helmets of the same type from Heraclea Minoa (Sicily-Italy) and from ancient art market. Other elements useful to understand decorations of third century bc helmets come from the re-examination of other helmets related to the Roman military expansion in northern Italy. Some aspects hitherto neglected and undocumented now are highlighted for the first time, allowing to hypothesize what was the appearance of the ancient helmets and their function.
In order to explore the relationship between the coastal zone and the urban layout of the ancient city of Nora (Sardinia, Italy), in 2011 the Department of Cultural Heritage of the University of Padua launched an interdisciplinary research project that currently involves the Universities of Pisa and Bologna. The processing of the archaeological and geological data collected during the fieldworks has provided a suite of new proxies to estimate the rates of sea-level evolution in Nora from the mid-2nd century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. This paper presents the results of the project, exposing some reconstructive proposals of the urban extent and layout of Nora between the Nuragic Age and the Late Antiquity. Since coping with the sea level rise is a matter of increasingly urgency, some strategies against the erosional risk affecting the archaeological heritage are finally reported.
This contribution is dedicated to illustrating the results of ongoing research by the Polo Museale Civico di Santa Marinella in relation to the ancient landing of Pyrgi located on the coasts of southern Etruria, today the north coast of Rome. It is a well-known ancient port, probably of prehistoric origin, controlled in Etruscan times by the city of Cerveteri and in Roman times the site of a maritime colony, deduced in the first half of the third century BC, coinciding with the outbreak of the First Punic War. The site of Pyrgi continues its life in imperial and late antiquity and then is transformed into the Civitas Sanctae Severae, current Castle of Santa Severa. A historical event of long duration and interest that new excavations and underwater research are trying to define in relation to topographical and archaeological aspects, as well as in relation to ancient coastal landscapes and port facilities.
The river Stella was one of the most important water courses of Friuli Venezia Giulia in antiquity. Its importance lies in its role of connecting territories at the base of the Alps with the Adriatic Sea shorelines. This article presents the study of a Roman shipwreck area, focusing on the relationship between the remains of a barge and a spread of archaeological materials extending upstream, North of the hull's remains, for several meters. This research aims to determine whether all the materials were part of the cargo of the same wreck. The methodology used during the underwater archaeological excavation proved that the area of scattered artefacts has a strong relation with the hull remains and the finds collected on the barge. Tegulae (roof tiles) represent the majority of artefacts both within the cargo and and in the stream of artefacts and the presence of the same producers' names on the tegulae stamps provides the most solid proof that the spread of archaeological material is linked with the barge. However, it seems unlikely that the tegulae and all the other archaeological material (amphoras, pottery, ecc) recovered so far belonged to the same boat - and some chronological inconsistency raises further questions. On the other side, the barge and the materials prove the prolonged and intense frequentation of the area and a use of the river Stella as a preferred water route.
