Introduction: Fungi pose a severe hazard to human health since they can cause everything from simple surface infections to catastrophic systemic disorders. In India, invasive aspergillosis, candidemia, and fungal keratitis are frequent, with severe fungal infections affecting an estimated 4.1% of the population. Antifungal drugs, classified based on their mechanisms of action, face challenges such as resistance and limited efficacy. Natural products containing flavonoids, terpenes, and other compounds have promising antimicrobial properties and could be combined with existing drugs to develop innovative antifungal treatments. By improving pharmaceutical pharmacokinetics, solubility, and bioavailability, nanotechnology-based delivery methods, such as nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), have the potential to solve the limitations of standard antifungal treatment. The present review covers the pathogenesis of fungal infections along with a complete overview of NLCs, including patents and clinical studies. Method: A comprehensive literature survey has been conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, Google, ClinicalTrials.gov, ResearchGate, Google Patents, etc. Result: NLCs have successfully delivered the drug to the site of action, reducing the drug dose, thereby minimizing side effects and enhancing bioavailability. Discussion: NLCs effectively overcame the solubility and resistance issues, providing a safer and targeted drug delivery system. Conclusion: Research on NLCs for treating fungal infections is ongoing, and antifungal NLCs are demonstrating promising potential, with the possibility of remarkable advancements in the future.
Introduction: Advances in nanotechnology have produced a range of strategies for cancer treatment. Among the materials under investigation, Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) are attractive candidates for immunotherapy because of their distinctive physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. Methods: This narrative review draws on studies retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science between 2020 and 2025 and describes the mechanisms, therapeutic applications, and clinical development of AuNPs. Results: AuNPs enhance immune responses by delivering antigens to dendritic cells and T cells and by remodeling the tumor microenvironment. Their photothermal and photodynamic properties damage tumors while activating immunity. Surface modification reduces systemic toxicity, and PEGylation and ligand conjugation improve targeting. Preclinical and early clinical studies indicate that AuNPs can enhance tumor regression and improve treatment response. Discussion: AuNPs can serve in drug delivery, immune modulation, and photothermal therapy. Although the results are promising, challenges remain in large-scale synthesis, long-term safety, and regulatory approval. Addressing these factors is essential for successful clinical translation. Conclusion: Gold nanoparticles represent a promising development in cancer immunotherapy, combining targeted delivery, immune activation, and photothermal effects. Continued optimization and safety evaluation will be essential if AuNPs are to become integral to next-generation personalized cancer treatment. Unlike previous reviews, this work provides a systems-level framework for AuNP-based cancer immunotherapy by integrating mechanistic data, translational bottlenecks, and quantitative comparisons between synthesis methods and nanocarrier systems.
Abstract: Nose-to-brain drug delivery has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing the transport of therapeutic agents to the Central Nervous System (CNS), particularly for drugs exhibiting poor brain bioavailability and limited permeability across the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB). This non-invasive approach enables direct drug transport from the nasal cavity to the brain through the olfactory and trigeminal neural pathways, thereby bypassing the BBB and minimizing systemic drug exposure. Consequently, N2B delivery offers rapid onset of action while reducing peripheral adverse effects. Recent advancements in nanotechnology have significantly accelerated the development of intranasal drug delivery systems. A wide range of nanocarriers, including nanoemulsions, microemulsions, polymeric micelles, lipid-based nanoparticles, liposomes, and transfersomes, have been extensively investigated for their ability to improve drug delivery to the brain. These nanoscale carriers enhance the solubility, physicochemical stability, and nasal mucosal permeability of therapeutic molecules, resulting in improved drug absorption and targeted brain delivery. Furthermore, nanocarrier-based systems can overcome several physiological barriers, including the BBB, hepatic first-pass metabolism, and gastrointestinal enzymatic degradation, thereby improving the bioavailability of drugs that are otherwise difficult to administer effectively. In addition, the non-invasive nature of intranasal administration contributes to better patient compliance compared with parenteral routes such as intravenous injection. Despite these advantages, several challenges continue to limit the clinical translation of nose-to-brain drug delivery. Rapid mucociliary clearance, restricted drug-loading capacity, formulation stability, and the potential redistribution of drugs from the brain into the systemic circulation remain significant obstacles. To address these limitations, researchers are exploring innovative formulation strategies, including the incorporation of mucoadhesive polymers, surface functionalization, ligand-mediated targeting, and stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, to prolong nasal residence time and enhance drug uptake into the brain. Equally important are the safety and toxicological considerations associated with repeated intranasal administration of nanocarrier systems, highlighting the need for comprehensive preclinical evaluation and well-designed clinical studies to establish their long-term efficacy and safety. Overall, nanocarrier-assisted nose-to-brain drug delivery represents a transformative platform for the management of central nervous system disorders. By enabling direct, targeted, and efficient drug transport to the brain while reducing systemic exposure, this approach has the potential to overcome the limitations of conventional drug delivery systems and improve therapeutic outcomes for a wide range of neurological diseases.
Introduction: Despite the immense therapeutic promise of plant-based bioactive com-pounds, their clinical application is limited by issues including poor aqueous solubility, low bio-availability, extensive metabolism, and non-specific tissue distribution. Materials and Methods: A systematic literature survey was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and WoS data base between 2015 and 2025. The search strategy combined keywords related to topic nanocarrier, such as herbal bioactive, polymer, types of polymer, types of nanoparticles Result: This review discusses the revolutionary impact of nanotechnology in overcoming such constraints by developing herbal nanoproducts. Different nanocarrier platforms, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions, are reviewed to understand how they can enhance solubility, protect sensitive phytochemicals from degradation, and facilitate site-specific, controlled drug delivery. The review also highlights advanced systems, such as stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, which are triggered by internal physiological signals (e.g., pH, redox conditions, enzymes, temperature, light, or ultrasound) to achieve precision-targeted delivery. Integration with current innovations such as 3D Printing, artificial intelligence, and personalised medicine is also described, indicating how these technologies can enhance dosage design, optimise therapeutic effectiveness, and customise treatments based on genomic and proteomic profiles. Discussion: Moreover, we cover the application of in vitro and in vo models to assess pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and safety, as well as point-of-care diagnostic devices to monitor individualised therapy. Critical research gaps are summarised, including a lack of knowledge on herb-nanocarrier interactions, in vivo behaviour, physiological stability, and difficulties in standardisation and targeting chronic disease. Ethical issues and changing regulatory environments are also discussed. Conclusion: Together, this review offers important insights into the new paradigm for nano-herbal drug delivery systems, highlighting both opportunities and challenges in applying such innovations to effective clinical therapies.
Introduction: Conventional drug delivery systems often face challenges such as poor solubility, first-pass metabolism, and non-specific drug distribution. Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), as an advancement over Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs), offer improved drug loading, stability, and controlled release due to their hybrid lipid matrix. Methods: This review compiles and critically analyzes literature from 2022 to 2024 to highlight advancements in the design, functionalization, and clinical translation of NLCs. Emphasis is placed on structural types of NLCs, preparation techniques, surface modifications (ligandmediated, PEGylation, and stimuli-responsive systems), and route-specific delivery strategies. This review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020. Results: NLCs have demonstrated a significant enhancement in therapeutic efficacy, with some studies reporting a 40-60% increase in oral bioavailability and improved skin penetration for topical drugs compared to conventional formulations. PEGylated and ligand-functionalized NLCs showed greater cellular uptake and barrier penetration, particularly in models of cancer and CNS disorders. Clinical trials with docetaxel-loaded NLCs and NLC-based eye drops have shown better targeting and prolonged therapeutic effect. Discussion: Despite encouraging preclinical and early clinical results, translational challenges persist, including scalability, regulatory clarity, and long-term stability. Standardization in production and advanced characterization techniques are essential for successful clinical adoption. Conclusion: NLCs present a promising solution to the limitations of traditional delivery systems. Their multifunctionality and evolving design platforms position them as next-generation carriers in precision therapeutics, provided regulatory and industrial hurdles are systematically addressed.
Introduction: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia and progressive microvascular and macrovascular complications. Among these, diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains a leading cause of preventable vision impairment globally. With its increasing prevalence, there is a growing emphasis on developing multidisciplinary, mechanism-driven therapeutic strategies to improve patient outcomes. To critically evaluate emerging treatment modalities for diabetic retinopathy, with a particular focus on anti-VEGF therapies and recent advancements in nano-based drug delivery systems. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar. Studies published between 2000 and 2024 were screened and analysed, with an emphasis on innovations in anti-VEGF therapeutics and the application of nanotechnology to improve drug stability, bioavailability, and targeted retinal delivery. Results: Anti-VEGF agents, such as ranibizumab, bevacizumab, and aflibercept, remain fundamental to DR management by suppressing pathological neovascularisation and vascular permeability. Despite their effectiveness, treatment challenges - including variable patient response, recurrence, and the need for frequent intravitreal injections - limit long-term success. Recent advances in nanotechnology, particularly nanomicelle-based formulations, demonstrate potential to enhance drug solubility, prolong intraocular retention, and improve targeted delivery to retinal tissues. Discussion: The integration of nanotechnology with established anti-VEGF treatments may address key limitations of current DR therapy. By improving pharmacokinetics and enabling sustained release, nano-enabled formulations could reduce treatment burden and enhance therapeutic consistency. However, clinical translation remains dependent on rigorous in vivo validation, safety profiling, and standardized manufacturing protocols. Conclusion: Combining advanced anti-VEGF therapies with innovative nano-delivery platforms represents a promising direction for the future management of diabetic retinopathy. These approaches may offer superior efficacy, reduced adverse effects, and improved treatment adherence. Large-scale, long-term clinical trials are crucial to confirm their therapeutic value and support their incorporation into routine clinical practice.
Introduction: Through gene therapy, genetic, cancerous, and degenerative diseases can be treated. However, the efficiency and safety limitation of viral and lipid-based vectors hin-der their clinical translation. Polymeric nanocarriers are a promising class of gene delivery agents that can be tailored to a large extent if required. Methods: This narrative review compiles articles published between the years 2020 and 2025, which were taken from databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science on polymeric nanocarri-ers for gene delivery. The studies were grouped by polymer type, carrier architecture, and thera-peutic application. Results: Polymeric architectures, such as nanogels, micelles, nanoparticles, nanowires, and lipid-polymer hybrids, show advanced gene loading, stability, and release. The use of such modalities allows for application across multiple disease types, such as cancer immunotherapy, viral gene silencing, neuroprotection, and anti-fibrotic therapies. By using ligands, stimuli-responsive polymers, and co-delivery methods while minimizing cytotoxicity, transfection efficiency, and specificity were vastly improved. Discussion: According to recent studies, clinical translation may be aided by biodegradable, stimuli-responsive polymeric systems that offer improved transfection efficiency and biocompat-ibility. Despite advances, limitations in cytotoxicity, scalability, and regulatory hurdles prevent clinical translation. The challenges of designing biodegradable polymers for scaffolding solutions can be supplemented with Artificial Intelligence and advanced materials engineering. Conclusion: Polymeric nanocarriers offer versatility and functionality in the design of drug-delivery applications that can be tailored for precision medicine. In other words, innovation across disciplines is necessary to translate these systems from bench to bedside.
Introduction: Skin is the largest organ in the human body. Millions of people around the world are suffering from fungal skin infections. This condition also disrupts their daily routines. Dermatophytes and Candida are the most common causes of fungal illnesses. Antifungal agents such as azoles, polyenes, allylamines, and echinocandins are used to prepare topical anti-fungal medication. Nowadays, topical antifungal treatments like ointments and creams face challenges such as patient compliance issues and poor skin penetration. Transferosome gels emerge as a promising alternative for treating skin fungal infections by improving solubility, permeability, and controlled release of antifungal agents, and transferosomes are more elastic and flexible than other vesicular delivery systems. Methods: Key components of transferosome gel formulation include phospholipids and edge activators, which minimise side effects, improve skin penetration, and create an efficient drug delivery system. Result: Considering problems with stability and formulation cost, Transferosome gel provides a novel, efficient, and patient-friendly treatment for fungal infection. Discussion: Although the method has shown potent antifungal properties, it is still lacking in proper assessment, data on long-term stability, and clinical credibility, thus making it less translatable into a clinical setup. Conclusion: Transferosome gel offers significant improvement over traditional treatment and warrants further research and clinical development to fully realize its therapeutic potential.
Introduction: The nanotechnology era has developed silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) that are emerging as a next-generation platform for diagnosis, targeted drug delivery, and therapeutic intervention with advanced cancer treatment. Methods: Emerging cancer nanomedicine often utilizes biogenic synthesis through plant extracts or microorganisms, providing a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to traditional chemical methods to form Bio-AgNPs. This eco-friendly approach results in biocompatible nanoparticles that avoid additional toxicity from synthetic chemicals and are enriched with phytochemicals like flavonoids and phenolics, which enhance their pharmacological potency against cancer. Charac-terization techniques such as UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, and TEM, etc., are employed to determine surface morphologies, which significantly impact the cancer theragnostic. Results: Bio-AgNPs with suitable functionalities can activate multiple pathway mechanisms for cancer therapy. These include ROS-mediated oxidative stress, DNA damage, G2/M cell cycle arrest, and the modulation of downstream apoptotic or anti-apoptotic pathways. Additionally, these nanoparticles ensure preferential site-specific cargo delivery, thereby minimizing systemic toxicity. Discussion: Despite gaining popularity among nano-metals, there are several pitfalls regarding clinical status, regulatory limitations, clinical trials, and toxicity. These include issues such as variability, limited scalability in bulk synthesis, and challenges in long-term risk assessment. Conclusion: This review article highlights the potential of Bio-AgNPs to transform cancer treatment through the integration with mechanistic pathways and multifunctional strategies. These include ligand-directed targeting, stimuli-responsive drug release, and molecular imaging within a single nanoscale platform. Additionally, the article addresses the key challenges that must be overcome to enable the successful clinical translation of these technologies.
Introduction: Flavonoids derived from citrus fruits, particularly naringenin, have demonstrated significant anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. These biological activities allow naringenin to modulate crucial cellular mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis pathways. Nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and lipid-based systems are developed to elevate the solubility and bioavailability of naringenin, enable the controlled and extended release, and facilitate the targeted delivery to cancer tissues, while avoiding systemic toxicity. This review provides an overview of nanocarrier systems for naringenin delivery based on design principles and biological efficiency observed on pre-clinical models. Methods: A comprehensive search of databases (PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Traditional integrated knowledge resources, local dissertations, and books) was conducted up until September 2025 using key terms such as phytomedicine, naringenin, nanocarrier, and anticancer. Results: Preclinical studies have demonstrated that naringenin-loaded nanocarriers effectively enhance the therapeutic efficacy of naringenin compared to its free form. Improvements were observed in cellular uptake, pharmacokinetic profile, and tumor-targeting ability, leading to more pronounced anticancer effects in various experimental models. Discussion: The integration of nanocarrier technology in naringenin delivery represents a promising approach to overcome pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic challenges. However, several hurdles remain, including optimization of formulation parameters, large-scale reproducibility, and assessment of long-term safety. Conclusion: Naringenin-loaded nanocarriers have significant potential for cancer therapy, offering improved delivery and therapeutic performance. However, further research is essential to refine these delivery platforms, enhance their clinical translation, and establish their long-term safety and efficacy in humans.
Introduction: Vitamin D deficiency is associated with bone and skin disorders, which adversely affect metabolic balance, cardiovascular health, and immune function. Although con-ventional detection methods exist, such as immunoassay, chromatographic methods, and liquid chromatography, mass spectroscopy, they are costly and involve complex sample preparation. These limitations restrict their application in point-of-care testing. This review aims to explore recent advances in nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors for vitamin D detection and eval-uate their potential for point-of-care testing. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using major scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Relevant studies were identified using keywords such as Vitamin D biosensor, electrochemical sensor, nanomaterials, and point-of-care testing. The selected publication was analyzed to assess sensor design, materials used, and analytical performance. Results: Nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors have significantly improved the sensitivity and selectivity of vitamin D detection. Platforms incorporating gold nanoparticles, molecularly imprinted polymers, two-dimensional nanomaterials, and hybrid nanocomposites demonstrate enhanced molecular recognition and signal amplification. Several reported systems achieve detection limits ranging from picomolar to low nanomolar levels with wide linear ranges and rapid response times. Discussion: Advances in nanomaterial engineering have improved the analytical performance of electrochemical sensing platforms and increased their potential for point-of-care testing. Emerg-ing materials, including doped carbon nanostructures, hybrid metal/metal oxide composites, and polymer-nanomaterial hybrids, provide enhanced signal amplification and molecular recognition. However, most systems remain at the laboratory stage. Further research is required for clinical validation, regulatory approval, and integration with portable diagnostic devices. Conclusion: Nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors have significantly improved vitamin D detection by enhancing sensitivity and analytical performance. These advances highlight their potential for developing reliable point-of-care testing.
Introduction: Nanotechnology has revolutionized various sectors, particularly in biomedical sciences and drug delivery. Among metal oxide nanoparticles, Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have emerged as a multifunctional agent due to their well-documented antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. However, the conventional synthesis of ZnO NPs often involves hazardous reagents, high energy input, and the generation of toxic byproducts, posing risks to both human health and the environment. These challenges necessitate the development of eco-friendly alternatives, such as green synthesis methods employing biological sources. Methods: This review analyzes recent studies on the green synthesis of ZnO NPs using biological sources such as plant extracts, bacteria, and fungi. The pharmacological activities of these biogenically synthesized ZnO NPs were evaluated through in vitro and in vivo experiments, focusing on antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant effects. Mechanisms of action were also explored. Results: Green synthesis methods effectively produced ZnO NPs with improved biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy. Biological entities influenced nanoparticle size, shape, and stability. Antibacterial activity was attributed to membrane disruption and the induction of oxidative stress. Anticancer effects were observed via ROS generation and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to apoptosis. Antioxidant properties were linked to free radical scavenging capabilities. Discussion: The review highlights the potential of green synthesis as a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to producing pharmacologically active ZnO NPs. Biological agents not only simplify synthesis but also enhance the therapeutic potential of the nanoparticles. Conclusion: Green-synthesized ZnO NPs offer promising biomedical applications due to their enhanced biocompatibility and multifunctional activity. Despite their potential, challenges such as synthesis variability, toxicity concerns, and scalability must be addressed through further toxicological evaluations and clinical studies.
Introduction: Neuroinflammation associated with microglial activation, oxidative stress, and cytokine release plays a central role in neuronal dysfunction in neurodegenerative disorders. Melatonin and taxifolin possess complementary antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions but are limited by low solubility and stability. This study aimed to develop a dual-drug, taxifolin-decorated liposomal system to enhance synergistic modulation of inflammatory and oxidative pathways in activated microglia. Methods: Co-loaded melatonin–taxifolin liposomes were prepared by thin-film hydration followed by probe sonication and surface decoration via thiol–maleimide conjugation. Physicochemical evaluation included particle size, PDI, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and in-vitro release. BV2 microglial assays evaluated cell viability (MTT), ROS generation, cytokine secretion, and expression of PPAR-γ, NF-κB p65, and cleaved caspase-3. Indirect neuroprotection was assessed in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to conditioned media from treated BV2 cultures. Results: The formulations yielded nanosized, monodisperse vesicles (~118–130 nm) with high encapsulation efficiency and sustained release. The decorated co-loaded formulation improved BV2 viability, significantly reduced ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and favorably modulated PPAR-γ and NF-κB expression. Conditioned media from treated microglia enhanced SH-SY5Y neuronal survival compared with free drugs and single-agent liposomes. Discussion: Findings indicate synergistic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects associated with co-delivery and nanocarrier encapsulation. While results support microglial pathway modulation, interpretation remains preliminary due to in-vitro design and limited replicate size. Conclusion: The taxifolin-decorated, co-loaded liposomal system demonstrated promising in-vitro neuroprotective potential through regulation of oxidative stress and inflammatory signaling. Further studies incorporating BBB transport, pharmacokinetics, mechanistic validation, and in-vivo evaluation are required to confirm translational relevance.
Introduction:: Conventional drug delivery systems continue to face significant limitations, including poor bioavailability, lack of site specificity, and unintended systemic toxicity. These challenges are particularly evident in the treatment of complex diseases such as cancer and neurological disorders. In this context, magnetically guided nanocarriers have emerged as a promising strategy, offering the ability to direct therapeutic agents and control their release using external magnetic fields. Methods:: This review summarizes recent advances in the design and biomedical application of magnetically controlled nanocarriers. Relevant literature was collected from major scientific databases, with emphasis on synthesis strategies, surface functionalization, and their integration into combination therapy and theranostic platforms. Results:: Magnetic nanostructures, particularly superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), exhibit favorable properties such as magnetic responsiveness, biocompatibility, and tunable surface chemistry. These features support targeted delivery, externally triggered drug release, and real-time imaging using MRI. Applications extend across cancer therapy, neurological disorders, metabolic diseases, and infectious conditions. Recent developments also highlight hybrid systems combining photothermal, photodynamic, and immunotherapeutic approaches to improve treatment outcomes. Discussion:: Despite notable progress, several challenges remain, including limited penetration in deep tissues, rapid clearance by the immune system, issues with large-scale reproducibility, and regulatory constraints. Emerging strategies such as biodegradable coatings, improved material design, and integration with computational optimization may help address these limitations. Conclusion:: Magnetically controlled nanocarriers represent a versatile platform for precision medicine, enabling targeted, controlled, and multifunctional therapeutic delivery. Continued interdisciplinary efforts and clinical validation will be essential for their successful translation into clinical practice.
Introduction: Nanobots are nanoscale constructs designed to integrate therapeutic and diagnostic functions. Their application in oncology offers opportunities for targeted delivery, imaging-guided therapy, and continuous monitoring of treatment response. Methods: A narrative review approach was applied. Literature was retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science using combinations of terms such as “nanobot,” “nanotheranostic,” “cancer therapy,” “liposomes,” “polymeric nanoparticles,” “dendrimers,” “metallic nanoparticles,” and “quantum dots.” Studies published between January 2019 and December 2024 were considered. Selection was based on relevance to design, synthesis, surface modification, imaging integration, therapeutic evaluation, and translational potential of nanobot systems. Results: Liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles remain the most extensively studied nanobot platforms, offering versatility in drug loading and surface functionalization. Dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and quantum dots provide additional theranostic capabilities through unique optical, magnetic, or structural properties. Preclinical and early clinical reports highlight enhanced tumor targeting, controlled release, and diagnostic feedback, though comparative data between platforms remain limited. Discussion: Nanobot-based theranostics demonstrate potential to improve cancer management by enabling precision delivery and simultaneous diagnostic readouts. However, variability in syn-thesis protocols, limited large-scale manufacturing strategies, and incomplete safety evaluations constrain clinical translation. More consistent characterization and standardized evaluation are needed. Conclusion: Nanobots represent a promising direction in cancer theranostics, combining therapy and diagnosis within a single system. Further interdisciplinary efforts are required to optimize design, ensure safety, and advance toward clinical adoption.
Background: The current study aimed to develop and assess clobetasol propionate-loaded niosomes-based sunscreen for topical vitiligo treatment. Vitiligo is an autoimmune disease characterized by melanocyte loss and the development of white patches in affected areas. Topical administration of clobetasol propionate, a glucocorticoid class steroid, treats vitiligo and other skin conditions. Because the systemic distribution of clobetasol propionate has several negative effects, including adrenal gland problems, high blood sugar, eyesight issues, and long-term use leads to skin thinning and stretch marks, to overcome these problems, topical treatment is preferable. Since vitiligo patients' skin is intolerant and more vulnerable to sunburn and skin cancer because they lack melanocytes that shield the skin from UV damage, sunscreen is the most effective strategy to protect their skin from damaging UV rays while lowering their risk of developing skin cancer. Objective: The study aimed to create a topical sunscreen using niosomes loaded with clobetasol propionate. Creating this sunscreen to treat vitiligo may increase patient compliance and prove to be more significant than other commercially available oral or topical medication formulations. Methods: Clobetasol propionate-loaded niosomes were prepared by ether injection using Span 40 and Span 60 as non-ionic surfactants and Cholesterol as a stabilizing agent, and diethyl ether as a volatile organic solvent. Sunscreen was prepared using different proportions of physical and chemical UV filters to achieve optimum SPF. Results: The optimized formulation (F4) demonstrated desirable physicochemical characteristics. It had a mean particle size of 200 nm, zeta potential of -19.3 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of 84.41%, indicating appropriate vesicle size, good vesicle stability, and high drug-loading capacity. Drug release studies revealed a sustained release profile, with cumulative drug release over 12 hours of 60.69% for pure Clobetasol Propionate (CP), 70.6% for the F4 formulation, and 96.6% for the optimized (F4S2) niosomal sunscreen formulation. The release data best fit the Korsmeyer-Peppas model with an R² value of 0.9993, confirming a diffusion-controlled (Fickian) mechanism. The formulation's SPF value was found to be 18.31, significantly higher than the base cream and earlier niosomal preparations, due to the inclusion of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide. Additional evaluations, including Spreadability, pH, extrudability, and rancidity, confirmed that F4S2 is pharmaceutically acceptable for topical application in the treatment of vitiligo. Discussion: This study successfully developed and characterized a novel clobetasol propionate-loaded niosomal sunscreen (F4S2) for vitiligo management. The optimized niosomes exhibited desirable physicochemical properties, including a small particle size (200 nm) and high entrapment efficiency (84.41%), confirming their suitability as a drug delivery vehicle. The formulation demonstrated a sustained drug release profile, best described by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, indicating controlled, anomalous diffusion. Crucially, the incorporation into a sunscreen base provided an effective SPF value, addressing the critical need for photoprotection in vitiligo patients. Overall, the F4S2 formulation offers a promising, dual-action strategy combining targeted, sustained corticosteroid delivery with essential UV protection that is expected to enhance patient compliance and therapeutic outcomes. Further in vivo studies are strongly recommended to confirm its clinical efficacy and safety. Conclusion: The in vitro characterization of clobetasol propionate-loaded niosome-based sunscreen reinforces the goal of niosome-based sunscreen as a possible vehicle for topical drug delivery of clobetasol propionate. Following rigorous evaluation in a few years, niosome-based sunscreen may also significantly improve the outcome for vitiligo skin.
Abstract: Nanomedicine is an interdisciplinary field that combines nanotechnology and life sciences, and it is not only modelling the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of major diseases at a very rapid rate. The review highlights recent progress in nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems and their use in cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders, as well as infectious diseases such as COVID-19, HIV, and tuberculosis. It briefly describes the key nanocarriers (liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and dendrimers) and targeted delivery methods, including passive, active, and stimuli-responsive approaches, which not only enhance therapeutic efficacy but also reduce off-target effects. The review also provides an overview of the global landscape of approved and emerging nanomedicines, the importance of AI and machine learning in nanoparticle design, and individualized treatment. Although the promise is high, toxicity, biocompatibility, scalability, and regulatory hurdles continue to hamper clinical translation. The solutions to these barriers will play an important role in enabling the maximum potential of nanomedicine in precision medicine.
The escalating burden of cancer demands innovative solutions beyond conventional therapies. Nanorobotics, integrating nanotechnology and artificial intelligence, has emerged as a transformative approach to cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. This review highlights the recent advancements in cancer-targeting nanorobots, focusing on their design, functional mechanisms, and clinical potential. A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature from 2015 to 2024 was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The analysis included experimental studies, clinical trials, and review articles discussing nanorobot fabrication, targeting mechanisms, and therapeutic payload delivery in oncology. Nanorobots have demonstrated precise tumor detection, targeted drug delivery, and realtime biosensing through the integration of biomolecular recognition, magnetic or chemical propulsion systems, and stimuli-responsive release mechanisms. Notable innovations include DNA origami-based nanorobots, magnetically guided micromachines, and enzyme-powered nanodevices, which exhibit enhanced biocompatibility and tumor specificity. Preclinical models showed improved therapeutic index, reduced systemic toxicity, and synergistic effects with existing therapies. While nanorobots exhibit immense promise in overcoming limitations of conventional cancer treatments, challenges remain in terms of immune evasion, long-term biocompatibility, large-scale manufacturing, and regulatory approval. Integrating AI-driven control systems and responsive materials may further refine targeting precision and clinical outcomes. Nanorobotics holds the potential to revolutionize cancer care by offering highly specific, minimally invasive, and programmable therapeutic solutions. Future research should focus on translational studies, safety assessments, and the development of standardized protocols for clinical application.
Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs), including IBS, FD, and GERD, represent complex clinical entities characterized by the convergence of gut-brain axis dysfunction, aberrant visceral pain processing, immune activation, and microbial dysbiosis, leading to persistent gastrointestinal symptoms despite the absence of identifiable structural changes. Traditional pharmacological strategies, including antacids, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), antispasmodics, prokinetics, and neuromodulators, often provide only partial relief and may cause adverse effects. This review aimed to compile current pharmacological strategies and recent innovations, focusing on nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, biologics, gene therapies, and microbiome-targeted interventions. Key preclinical and clinical findings were analyzed to assess therapeutic efficacy and the innovation of delivery strategies. Recent advances have introduced biologics and nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems as promising therapies for FGIDs. Nanoparticles, such as lipid, polymeric, and inorganic types, offer improved drug stability, bioavailability, and site-specific delivery. Novel formulations, including ROS-responsive and mucus-penetrating particles, enable controlled, inflammation- targeted release with reduced toxicity. Functional agents, such as curcumin, berberine, and TNF-α siRNA, exhibit enhanced efficacy in preclinical IBD models when delivered via nanoparticles. Additionally, microbiome-based therapies, such as probiotics, synbiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation, support modulation of the gut-brain axis and restoration of microbial balance. Therapeutic approaches are shifting from symptomatic management to targeted and mechanism-based strategies. Precision medicine incorporating genomic, proteomic, and microbiome profiling offers the potential for personalized treatments. Emerging therapies, particularly NP-based systems and microbiome-centered interventions, offer a transformative potential in FGID management. However, challenges in regulatory, accessibility, and combination therapy validation must be addressed for clinical translation.
Introduction: mRNA is a single-stranded RNA molecule. It conveys all the genetic information that is found in DNA and is complementary to it. mRNA was discovered in the early 1960s, and further studies were conducted in the 1970s. Yet, the greatest issue was that mRNA would be taken up by the body and rapidly destroyed. The crisis condition developed during the COVID-19 pandemic made the evolution of mRNA vaccines very swift. The main aim of this review article is to explain the development of different types of mRNA vaccines along with lipid nanoparticles, their in-vitro transcription, how they can be used in cancer immunotherapy, and the possibilities of their working, including studies, mechanism of actions, and their uses in the treatment of various infectious diseases such as norovirus, influenza, sickle cell anemia, and HIV/AIDS. Methods: The functional result of a gene (proteins) is created when the genetic instructions (triplets) found on mRNA are translated into amino acids. With advancements in nanotechnology, the development of lipid nanoparticles that wrap the mRNA like a bubble makes the entry into the cell possible. Once inside the cell, mRNA vaccines work by releasing the target gene, which contains information for cells to produce a harmless piece of the target virus. Results: The invention and clinical execution of mRNA vaccines for cancer have been improved by recent technological advancements for the delivery of synthetic mRNA sequences using lipid nanoparticles. mRNA vaccines represent a significant advancement in vaccine technology, offering both rapid development capabilities and potent immune responses against various infectious diseases. Conclusion: In this review article, we discuss the development of mRNA vaccines, their mechanism of action to prevent a wide variety of infectious diseases, their formulation, and the use of Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs) for the delivery of the vaccine. Moreover, we discuss the use of mRNA vaccines in cancer immunotherapy and their future prospects.
