Scrapie is a fatal neurodegenerative prion disease of sheep and goats, classified among the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. It occurs in the following two main forms: classical scrapie (CS), which is naturally contagious, and atypical scrapie (AS or Nor98), generally regarded as sporadic with limited natural transmissibility. Goats are susceptible to both forms and present distinct challenges for control, partly because protective PRNP alleles are less frequent than in sheep. This review offers a goat-focused synthesis of prion strain diversity, clinical presentation, pathogenesis, transmission, neuropathology and PrPSc deposition patterns, diagnosis (including emerging techniques and genotype-dependent limitations), and control strategies. Advances from 2021 to 2026 are integrated throughout, with particular attention to caprine PRNP polymorphisms and their effects on susceptibility, diagnostic performance, and resistance breeding. Key polymorphisms at codons 146 (D146 and S146) and 222 (K222) confer substantial resistance to CS strains and remain the cornerstone of control and eradication. Recent EU surveillance shows a continued decline, with 71 goat cases reported in 2024 (65 CS and six AS), all in animals lacking strongly protective alleles. Complete eradication is still difficult because of prion strain diversity, environmental contamination, and uneven implementation of control measures across regions. Persistent gaps include goat prion strain characterization, the long-term durability of resistance alleles against emerging strains, and optimization of genotype-adapted diagnostics. Implications for sustainable disease management in caprine populations are discussed.
Pressure ulcers may harbor diverse microorganisms, but the significance of intestinal microeukaryotes in these lesions remains poorly understood. We report the concurrent detection of Blastocystis subtype 1 (ST1) and Nakaseomyces glabratus in a sacral pressure ulcer in a bedridden adult woman. The lesion was identified during a diarrheal episode and rapidly progressed, prompting investigation for cutaneous amebiasis. Neither microscopy nor complementary Entamoeba-targeted PCR provided evidence of amebic involvement in the ulcer exudate. However, stained smears revealed yeast-like cells and rounded granular structures suggestive of Blastocystis. Targeted PCR sequencing and phylogenetic analyses identified Blastocystis ST1 and N. glabratus. This unusual finding highlights the value of combining microscopy with molecular identification to characterize unexpected microorganisms in pressure ulcers. Fecal introduction and interactions within the polymicrobial wound environment plausibly explain their concurrent presence; however, we did not demonstrate viability, established colonization, biofilm participation, or a contribution to ulcer progression or the fatal outcome.
Background: Chronic progressive lymphedema (CPL) in draft horses is frequently complicated by secondary cutaneous infection, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may be difficult to eliminate. This study evaluated topical 2% acetic acid as an adjunct to a standardized local treatment protocol. Methods: Records of 35 hospitalized horses with CPL in which P. aeruginosa was the sole pretreatment isolate were reviewed retrospectively. Seven historical controls received clipping, chlorhexidine cleansing, drying, and polyhexanide irrigation; 28 horses received the same protocol plus 2% acetic acid twice daily. No horse received systemic antimicrobials. Follow-up cultures were collected 24 h after clinical resolution. Results: Median treatment duration was 12 days (IQR 11–14) in controls and 8 days (IQR 7–9) with acetic acid (p < 0.001). P. aeruginosa clearance was achieved in 1/7 (14.3%) and 27/28 (96.4%) horses, respectively (p < 0.001). Subsequent clinical reappearance of P. aeruginosa-associated disease occurred in 6/7 (85.7%) and 3/28 (10.7%) horses (p < 0.001); most control events reflected persistence rather than recurrence after clearance. No local adverse reactions were recorded. Conclusions: Adding topical 2% acetic acid was associated with higher P. aeruginosa clearance, shorter treatment, and fewer subsequent clinical reappearances. Prospective randomized studies are needed to confirm these findings.
Viral diseases that cause swine reproductive disorders pose severe threats to the global pig industry and result in enormous economic losses worldwide. The high similarity of clinical symptoms, widespread co-infections, and continuous emergence of novel pathogens urgently require rapid and accurate diagnostic strategies to support efficient disease prevention and control. This narrative review summarizes and analyzes the latest advances in diagnostic technologies for major swine reproductive viral pathogens, including Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV), Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV), Porcine Circovirus (PCV), Pseudorabies Virus (PRV), and Porcine Parvovirus (PPV). We mainly focus on state-of-the-art diagnostic approaches centered on nucleic acid detection and serological identification. In terms of nucleic acid detection, this review elaborates on the technological evolution from conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) to real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and digital PCR (dPCR), highlighting the critical value of multiplex PCR (mPCR) in differential diagnosis of swine viral diseases. Meanwhile, we summarize widely applicable isothermal amplification techniques, including Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) and Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA)/Recombinase-Aided Amplification (RAA), which are highly suitable for point-of-care testing (POCT). Emerging CRISPR-Cas-based diagnostic systems for swine viral detection are also comprehensively discussed. Regarding serological detection, this article systematically reviews diverse Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) methods and their practical applications in serological antibody monitoring and the Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) strategy. Furthermore, the potential application of Lateral Flow Immunoassay (LFIA) in rapid on-site screening is evaluated. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date theoretical reference for the precise prevention and targeted control of swine reproductive viral diseases.
Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a major immunosuppressive pathogen of poultry that can compromise immune function and increase susceptibility to secondary infections; however, its segment-level genomic diversity in Brazil remains insufficiently characterized. We conducted an integrated molecular surveillance study combining diagnostic detection, VP2 and VP1 sequencing, phylogenetic and genomic constellation analyses, selection analyses, and recombination screening. IBDV was detected in 88 clinical samples among suspected flocks (85.4%), with detection increasing markedly after 14 days of age. Among 21 samples selected for sequencing, 17 VP2 sequences were classified as A4, while 15 VP1 sequences belonged to B1 or the novel B6 genogroup. Among samples with paired VP2–VP1 data, A4B1 was identified in 10/11 samples and A4B6 in one. Analysis of these sequences together with historical Brazilian sequences with paired segments identified A3B2 and A4B1 as the predominant genomic constellations, with A3B2 detected from 2001 to 2024 and A4B1 from 1983 to 2025. Notably, three VP1 sequences were classified within B6, which occurred in both A3 and A4 backgrounds, generating A3B6 and A4B6 constellations consistent with putative reassortment. VP2 exhibited localized diversification against a background of predominant purifying selection, including sites under episodic diversifying selection within the exposed PBC, PDE, and PHI loops. Together, these findings reveal a more dynamic genomic landscape of Brazilian IBDV than suggested by VP2-based surveillance alone, with novel B6-associated constellations providing evidence of previously unrecognized segment-level diversity and putative reassortment, underscoring the importance of dual-segment genomic surveillance for monitoring IBDV evolution and adapting prevention protocols in Brazil.
