Abstract Introduction The spinal accessory nerve (cranial nerve XI) is a motor and proprioceptive nerve that supplies sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, thus it is essential for proper shoulder function. Given its variable anatomy and clinical implications, this study aimed to review the currently knowledge of its topography, branching and clinical implications. Materials and methods We followed SANRA guidelines and performed literature search using PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases up to November 2024. Selected studies included written in English, original, peer-reviewed cadaveric, radiologic, and surgical articles with clearly defined objectives, methods, and results regarding accessory nerve anatomy. Two reviewers independently screened the studies, with consensus reached through a third reviewer when necessary. Results Extracted data included morphometric parameters, nerve course, branching, exit and ending points, and clinical considerations from 71 studies. Results highlighted marked variability in exit points, with the nerve commonly emerging at or near the sternocleidomastoid muscle, leaving the cranium through jugular foramen. Its relationship to the internal jugular vein and cervical plexus was inconsistent, presenting frequent anatomical variants that we described. Branching patterns to both sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles varied widely, with up to five branches. Discussion The clinical analysis led us to the conclusion that the nerve’s superficial course through the posterior cervical triangle renders it especially vulnerable during lymph node dissection, biopsies, tumor removals and other surgical procedures. Injury leads to “shoulder syndrome”, characterized by pain, weakness, and scapular winging, that often requires reconstructive intervention. Understanding the accessory nerve’s anatomical variability is critical for surgical planning, intraoperative nerve preservation and improving patient outcomes.
Abstract Central nervous system (CNS) injuries, including traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury, affect millions of individuals worldwide annually, resulting in profound long-term disability and significant socioeconomic burden. Despite decades of research, effective neuroregenerative therapies remain elusive, largely due to inadequate preclinical models. Traditional two-dimensional cultures and animal models, while valuable, fail to capture the complexity of human neural tissue architecture and disease pathophysiology, thereby limiting translational success. This literature review examines neural organoids – three-dimensional, self-organizing tissue structures derived from human pluripotent stem cells – as transformative tools for bridging the translational gap in CNS injury research. We synthesize current knowledge on the biological principles governing organoid generation, including self-organization, extracellular matrix scaffolding, and bioreactor optimization. We evaluate diverse organoid types – cortical, cerebellar, spinal cord organoids, and brain assembloids – and their applications in modeling traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, and neurodegenerative pathologies. Additionally, we discuss organoid utility in preclinical drug screening and therapeutic development, including neuroprotective agents and gene therapies. Patient-derived organoids offer particular promise for personalized disease investigation and precision medicine. While organoids demonstrate superior predictive accuracy and human-relevant complexity compared to conventional models, significant ethical considerations regarding organoid consciousness, human-animal chimeras, donor autonomy, and commercialization warrant careful governance. This review demonstrates that neural organoids represent a revolutionary technology advancing translational neuroscience and regenerative medicine, while highlighting the critical importance of rigorous ethical oversight in their application.
Heart failure is a major public health issue and one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality world-wide. Despite significant advances in heart failure treatment and improved patient prognosis, the effectiveness of standard therapies remains limited, prompting the search for new solutions. One of these are sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors, initially introduced for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. They have demonstrated beneficial effects on the clinical course of heart failure, independent of the presence of carbohydrate metabolism disorders. Their mechanisms of action extend far beyond the hypoglycemic effect and involve multidimensional molecular processes. The most important include: modulation of cardiomyocyte energy metabolism, regulation of ionic homeostasis, effects on cardiac remodeling, and reduction of oxidative stress and inflammatory response. An increasing number of clinical studies confirm the role of these molecular effects in improving outcomes for HF patients. Understanding the complex mechanisms of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors provides new therapeutic opportunities and reinforces their position as a cornerstone of pharmacological heart failure management.
Abstract Huntington’s disease (HD) is a genetic disorder that arises from a mutation in the huntingtin gene, leading to the formation of toxic aggregates. These elements are predominantly deposited in neurons, with smaller amounts found in the cells of numerous peripheral organs. One such example is the adrenal glands, which are responsible for the production of catecholamines, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, in addition to steroid hormones, including cortisol and aldosterone. Abnormalities in the concentrations of these produced factors have been demonstrated in both patients and animal models. However, there is a lack of studies related to the expression profile of genes responsible for adrenal physiological functions. The objective of this study was to ascertain whether there have been alterations in the expression of genes responsible for the processes of steroidogenesis and catechola-mine production in the adrenal glands of the R6/1 mouse model of HD. To this purpose, we employed quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses to ascertain the relative expression levels of the genes responsible for these two processes. A significant decrease in the expression of genes involved in the catecholamine production pathway was observed, while no change in the expression of genes related to steroidogenesis was detected. This finding suggests that reduced gene expression may contribute to the impaired production of catecholamines in R6/1 mice.
Surgical interventions involving the gastrointestinal tract profoundly influence the composition, diversity, and function of the gut microbiota, which plays a central role in human health and disease. Recent advances in sequencing technologies, particularly 16S rRNA gene profiling and metagenomics, have enabled detailed characterization of microbial alterations following different types of intestinal surgery. Bariatric procedures such as Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy consistently reduce microbial diversity in the short term but are also associated with functional reprogramming of the microbiota, including enhanced capacity for energy harvest and altered bile acid metabolism. Gastrectomy and bowel resections induce region-specific changes, often leading to dysbiosis, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, and nutrient malabsorption. The creation of intestinal stomas modifies luminal and mucosal microbial communities, frequently promoting the overrepresentation of opportunistic pathogens. In addition, perioperative interventions, including mechanical bowel preparation, perioperative fasting, and antibiotic prophylaxis, exert acute but sometimes long-lasting effects on microbial ecology. These microbial shifts have been linked to a broad spectrum of clinical outcomes ranging from metabolic improvements and enhanced immune modulation to increased susceptibility to infections, impaired wound healing, and long-term complications such as anastomotic leaks or inflammatory conditions. Understanding the relationship between specific surgical procedures, perioperative management, and microbiota modulation is therefore crucial for optimizing patient outcomes. This review integrates current evidence from clinical and translational studies, highlights the mechanistic links between surgical approaches and microbial dynamics, and outlines future directions for research and therapeutic interventions aimed at preserving or restoring a healthy microbiome after intestinal surgery.
Abstract The skeletal, striated muscles constitute approximately 42% of body mass in male subjects and 36% in female subjects. The process of ageing is associated with a decline in the mass of these muscles, resulting in impaired mobility and increased difficulty in performing daily activities. This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in the elderly population as it is closely related to the development of a progressive muscle disease, known as sarcopenia. Both resistance and endurance training can serve as effective tools for reducing the likelihood of developing this disease, as well as for preventing its progression. It is essential that health and fitness professionals are aware of the therapeutic benefits of training in sarcopenia and should therefore encourage older adults to engage in physical activity.
Abstract The pancreas, an organ of the digestive system, is mainly divided into two parts: the exocrine and the endocrine pancreas, each composed of different cells with various functions. In case of dysfunction or loss of β-cells, the natural consequence is to develop a disease such as type 1 diabetes, which is the result of autoimmune destruction of these cells, or type 2 diabetes, which is the result of peripheral tissue resistance to insulin. At present, the available treatment is composed of an pharmacological intervention in form of lifelong administration of insulin, and only limited alternative treatment options exist. However, emerging regenerative therapies, aim to replenish functional β-cells by stimulating proliferation of healthy ones, or by generating new ones through neogenesis from progrenitor populations or transdifferentiation from other mature cell types. This review lists those current regenerative strategies for diabetes, highlighting various approaches, lessons and studies. It discusses regeneration of β-cells, bioengineering methods with transplantation based methods.
Abstract Oestrogens are part of a large group of steroid hormones involved in various regulatory processes in the organism. Their activity is not limited to the reproductive system but extends also to bone and adipose tissues, as well as the nervous and muscular systems, among others. In these tissues, oestrogens exert their effects through their receptors (ERα, ERβ and GPER), which are expressed not only in the cell membrane and the nucleus but also in mitochondria. Consequently, oestrogens influence several mitochondrial processes, such as ATP production, mitochondrial fusion and fission, oxidative stress, apoptosis and others. It is also important to emphasise the effects, when the oestrogen production increases or decreases resulting in oestrogen-dependent diseases. All of this makes oestrogens important molecules that deserve considerable attention in research. The aim of this review is to present (1) the pathways of oestrogen synthesis and (2) the broad scope of their activity in the organism, including their relation to the oxidative stress.
Human ageing is a complex biological process characterized by age-related functional decline, resulting in increased vulnerability to illness, disease and death. Although advances in molecular gerontology have elucidated the cellular and molecular underpinnings of ageing, translating these insights into effective strategies that extend both health span and lifespan in humans remains a pressing challenge. A persistent obstacle is the absence of a coherent and operational definition of health within the field. Traditional models define health as the absence of disease or functional impairment, but this conception becomes increasingly inadequate in the context of ageing, where multimorbidity, subclinical dysfunction and frailty often occur without overt pathology. Ageing can be conceptualized as a contraction of the homeodynamic space, reflecting diminished resilience, adaptability and repair capacity. From a philosophical perspective, health may be understood as a sustained pattern of adaptive traits over time. In this review, we explore conceptual distinctions between health, illness, disease and related terms, with particular attention to clinically significant yet non-pathological states. We argue that biogerontology should adopt resilience-based and systems-level frameworks to capture the complexity of ageing and to guide the development of interventions that support functioning and quality of life across the lifespan. We also propose an integrative model that links personalized geroscience approaches with lifespan-related, behavioural and social factors to promote healthy ageing.
Testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, significantly impacts cardiovascular health. Produced mainly in the testes, its levels decline with age, leading to increased risks of cardiovascular diseases, sexual dysfunction, and metabolic disorders. This paper examines testosterone’s dual role in the cardiovascular system. Low levels are linked to increased risks of heart failure (HF) and coronary artery disease (CAD), while testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) can improve heart function, exercise tolerance, and metabolic health. However, supraphysiological doses or long-term therapy may cause pathological heart hypertrophy and vascular complications. Testosterone influences cardiomyocyte apoptosis, calcium regulation, and oxidative stress reduction, with anti-inflammatory effects shown to lower pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Studies demonstrate TRT’s benefits in reducing cholesterol, blood pressure, and ischemic episodes in CAD patients, but conflicting data exist regarding its association with myocardial infarction risk. Additionally, testosterone’s effects vary in different cardiomyopathies, showing both protective and harmful outcomes. This review underscores the need for carefully tailored TRT to balance the benefits of maintaining optimal testosterone levels while minimizing cardiovascular risks.
The effectiveness of assisted reproduction methods is still not as high as was expected recently. For effective therapy, it is necessary to use only the highest quality sperm for oocyte fertilization, as the fertilization process most often takes place using the ICSI technique, i.e. direct injection of sperm into the oocyte. For these reasons, separation techniques are constantly being developed, and in a relatively short period of time the view of these procedures has changed. In recent years, microfluidic chip techniques have been increasingly applied. In this study, we compared the swim up technique with the two most used chips (ca0 and ZYMOT). We tested the efficiency of these separation methods against the swim-up method. In this study, we evaluated sperm concentration, motility, morphology, acrosome status and DNA integrity before and after separation methods. Each patient’s ejaculate was separated simultaneously by the swim up method and both chips. It turned out that the separation methods are very similar in motility, concentration and acrosome status and sperm morphology. However, in the case of DNA fragmentation, a significant difference in the reduction of the proportion of fragmented spermatozoa was found only with the chips and not with the swim-up method. Moreover, when comparing the relative effectiveness of sperm reduction with fragmented DNA, the ZYMOT method was more effective than Ca0. However, the differences between the chips were not statistically significant with an average of 18%.
Cancer has been one of the biggest silent killers during the 20ths and 21st centuries. In addition to this disease, one of the social factors that promote the chances of having diseases is stress. Recent studies have shown that chronic stress can lead to gastric cancer by activating adrenergic signaling pathway which plays a fundamental role in tumorigenesis. Furthermore, the plasma levels of catecholamines and cortisol elevate in stressful situations. These hormones play a role in inducing progress and metastasis of gastric carcinoma. Stress management has been a vital factor for the people of this century. Although stress is not well-explained clearly, recent studies have shown that people with low income, loads of work, family problems, etc. are of environmentally challenging and present a high possibility of being victim to gastric neoplasms and other diseases.
The anatomical knowledge that students must assimilate is very extensive and necessary to master thoroughly in a relatively short period. To address the difficulties associated with learning anatomy, we decided to preliminarily investigate the method of near-peer teaching (NPT) to improve learning and preparation for exams. The main aim of our study was to determine students’ attitudes toward their own knowledge in the context of being taught by peers. An additional important aspect of the project was to evaluate the significance of this teaching method in the context of effective anatomy learning and to verify the potential for integrating a new form of peer assistance into everyday education. We initiated a series of lectures conducted by members of our student scientific club to prepare students for their exams. After each lecture, participants were asked to complete a voluntary survey to gather their opinions on their satisfaction with the sessions. The sessions were rated as helpful by 94.8% of respondents, with 54% stating that the sessions reduced their anxiety before the upcoming exam. However, 26.3% felt that the sessions increased their anxiety. The sessions boosted the self-esteem of 34.7% of respondents and lowered it to 25.4%, while the rest reported no change. As many as 96.1% of respondents would recommend such sessions to other students. Near-peer teaching appears to be an effective method of supporting the assimilation of material outside of regular classes. The results suggest that NPT can enhance students’ self-assessment of their knowledge.
In this review we discuss the role of adipose tissue in colorectal cancer (CRC). CRC is one of the deadliest cancers worldwide and, in fact, the third most common. However, it can be mainly prevented by an adequate diet. We explored and studied articles in-depth in order to develop better understanding about CRC. We highlight, that markers such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8/CXCL8 are the major players responsible for causing CRC. In addition, fat-induced insulin resistance also contributes to the risk of CRC. We emphasize that the best way to prevent colorectal cancer is to consume a fiber-rich diet and do physical activity on a regular basis. We aim to explore the importance of adipose tissue as an endocrine organ, how it relates to obesity as well as the crucial role adipose tissue play in progression of colon cancer.
Obesity is recognized as a civilization disease constituting a serious global health problem and an increasing number of recent studies emphasize a key role of intestinal flora in maintaining the overall function of the body. In this article we want to present the link between the gut microbiota and obesity. We highlight, that the gut microbiome influences the immune system by affecting GALT maturation, enhancing intestinal barrier function and secreting various proteins and cytokines. In addition, we show that intestinal bacteria produce short-chain fatty acids that impact anti- and pro-inflammatory responses and intestinal epithelial function. Moreover, dysbiosis is closely related to the development and persistence of obesity. It causes impairment of intestinal barrier as well as prompts changes in the immune system leading to an inflammatory response. It is worth noting that probiotics and prebiotics, containing Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus strains, have great potential in modulating the composition of intestinal microflora and alleviating metabolic disorders associated with obesity.
Abstract Disruptions of the circadian rhythm have shown that it can lead to significant health risks. Factors such as rapid travel across different time zones, increased exposure to artificial light, and the consumption of substances like caffeine contribute to this disruption. Understanding these disruptions and its causes is crucial for improving our health and in finding solutions.
Abstract Glioblastoma is a highly aggressive and complex pathology that has garnered significant interest among researchers and clinicians due to its high mortality rates. This research article provides a systematic analysis of key aspects related to glioblastoma, offering comprehensive insights into its underlying complexities. The text explores the epidemiological patterns, etiological factors, and genetic and molecular foundations underlying the development of GBM. It also examines the interplay between the immune system and the tumor, identifying specific immune markers with potential diagnostic value. The article describes the complex processes involved in tumor growth, including its interaction with surrounding tissues, the development of the tumor microenvironment, and the role of stem cells. It also provides an analysis of current treatment options and the challenges they face, particularly in relation to tumor resistance. The article concludes with a thorough examination of the changing landscape of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. It highlights notable recent research findings and provides insight into potential advancements that could shape the future of medical interventions for glioblastoma.
Abstract Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder as a result of life-threatening situations which in turn affects quality of life through activities of daily living. This is attributed to a plethora of neuromolecular factors negatively affecting the functional make-up of the brain. The complex interplay of these factors include neuronal alterations and neuroplasticity, signalling molecular, astrocyte and glial cell alterations which together act as a survival mechanism in several brain regions.
Abstract Endometriosis is a gynaecological disease that affects female reproductive organs by the growth of endometrium- like tissues inside and outside the pelvic cavity. This paper explored how endometriosis can lead to increased chances of infertility through a dysregulated immune system and impaired oocyte quality.
Abstract The aim of this study was to ascertain the suitability of an age determination method which uses the ratio between the width of the pulp cavity and the width of the tooth itself. The measurements were obtained from X-ray pictures of individual teeth using an intraoral sensor. We found that with age, the ratio decreased, and that this change was more prominent in the maxillary canines (104 and 204) than the mandibular (304 and 404). The Arctic fox heads used in this study were sourced from a private fur farm from Poland, and were deep-frozen until the research began. The results suggest that the method we used is reliable for determining the age of an individual, however, it can be inaccurate due to the fact it doesn’t consider three-dimensional changes occurring in the dental cavity and the shape of the tooth. On the other hand, this method is far more accessible and simpler than, for example, one utilising three-dimensional imaging, since most veterinary practices are equipped with basic X-ray equipment.
