The green energy and low-carbon transformation of the agricultural industry urgently needs a holistic solution covering the whole industrial chain. However, it is crucial to break the bottlenecks such as inconsistent accounting boundaries, unclear driving mechanisms, and unclear emission reduction paths. This study takes a Chinese geographical indication agricultural product as a case, explores the carbon footprint of the entire industrial chain, and simulates the stability of the industrial structure under different scenarios. Results show that: (1) Fertilizer and pesticide contribute the most to the carbon footprint of the planting stage. The main source of carbon footprints for bulk fruit, graded fruit, and not-from-concentrate (NFC) juice is the planting stage; that of concentrated juice, green orange wine, and green orange vinegar is mainly from the deep processing or packaging stage. (2) The carbon footprint of the entire industrial chain is reasonable, but the industry has a weak capacity for sustainable development. The carbon footprint would be controlled to an increase of 7.9% under the low-carbon development scenario, which can improve the industrial structure and economic profits significantly. This study can provide decision support for the low-carbon and sustainable development of the agricultural industry, contributing to emission reduction.
The dairy industry is growing rapidly with increasing population and living standards. However, dairy farms are major sources of greenhouse gas emissions because methane is released through enteric fermentation and manure decomposition. This study proposes a dairy-barn model that captures methane emissions for useful on-farm outputs while maintaining favourable conditions for cattle. The proposed barn consists of two subsystems: a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) unit that provides cooling and ventilation, and an electricity-generating Brayton cycle. Methane extracted from the barn’s HVAC exhaust is used as a methane-air mixture in the Brayton cycle to generate electricity. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and thermodynamic analyses are used to evaluate HVAC performance and energy production. The system boundary is defined at the barn level, covering HVAC-based methane capture, direct methane conversion in the Brayton cycle, and gross power generation, while excluding broader system-level effects such as net cooling-generation balance, grid-related indirect emissions, and economic performance. Model results indicate that the proposed system could capture and process 18 tonnes of methane per year, corresponding to a 400.5-tonne CO2-eq reduction in methane-attributable GHG emissions. The Brayton cycle is predicted to produce approximately 17.8 kW of electricity under the analysed methane concentrations. Overall, the findings demonstrate the design-stage potential of integrating barn-climate control with methane utilisation as a pathway for lower-emission dairy-farm design.
This study investigated the physical, mechanical, and microstructural properties of bagasse compost to optimize its densification into durable pellets for agricultural applications. Bagasse compost was initially subjected to hammer milling across various moisture contents (8-16% wet basis) and screen sizes (1-4 mm). Results showed that specific grinding energy increased exponentially with moisture content and decreased with larger screen sizes, ranging from 11 to 750 kJ/kg. Particle size distributions were characterized, revealing broader distributions with coarser screens. Pellets were subsequently produced using a closed-die hydraulic press under controlled pressures (50-150 MPa), moisture contents (8-20%), and particle sizes (1-4 mm). Compaction energy, fracture resistance, and pellet density were modeled using Response Surface Methodology. Increasing pressure significantly enhanced compaction energy, fracture resistance, and pellet density. Higher moisture content generally reduced compaction energy but improved fracture resistance, while pellet density exhibited an initial increase followed by a decrease. Particle size had a less pronounced effect on compaction energy and density but positively influenced fracture resistance. Microstructural analysis via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) revealed more open fiber bundles and cracks in compost compared to raw bagasse, indicative of structural changes. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis showed an increased crystallinity index in compost due to the degradation of amorphous regions (hemicellulose and lignin), with crystalline cellulose remaining stable. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) identified the compost's average glass transition temperature at 89.7 °C, highlighting the importance of temperature control during densification to preserve beneficial microorganisms. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed significant chemical changes, particularly the degradation of hemicellulose. These findings offer crucial insights for optimizing bagasse compost pelletization for sustainable and efficient utilization.
About one third of all the food grown for people is lost or wasted every year. Fast-moving consumer goods with very short shelf lives lose a large share of this food at the distribution stage. Distributors face a hard choice because ordering too much turns good food into waste while ordering too little causes lost sales. This study builds and tests a dual-channel clearance framework that separates these two goals and keeps discounted stock away from full-price stock. A stochastic mixed-integer non-linear model solved in GAMS sets a Protection Level for the fresh channel and a Rockwell Arena simulation tests that policy under random customer arrivals using behaviour inputs from a survey of 217 shoppers in Dhaka. At a fixed audit point 72 h after production every unit above the Protection Level moves to a separate discounted Near-Food Channel. A constant markdown of 30 percent removed all distributor waste and turned a loss of 11300 BDT into a profit of 19426 BDT. A stepped markdown of 20 percent on Day 4 and 10 percent on Day 5 also removed all waste and raised profit to 20346 BDT. Service to full-price shoppers stayed at 100 percent under both markdown rules. A sensitivity study over behaviour demand and cost inputs kept profit positive in every case. These results allow the manufacturer to withdraw the wastage allowance that distributors normally receive. The rule needs only one timed check and a simple lookup table so it suits low-technology supply chains in emerging markets.
TBC contamination in poultry bedding materials remains a critical biosecurity challenge in modern poultry production systems due to its adverse impacts on animal health, food safety, and environmental sustainability. Rice husk, one of the most widely used bedding materials in poultry farming, is highly susceptible to microbial contamination during storage, transportation, and farm utilization. Conventional sanitation approaches primarily rely on chemical disinfectants; however, these methods often exhibit limited penetration into bulk biomass matrices and may result in chemical residues, occupational exposure risks, secondary environmental pollution, and increased operational costs. Consequently, the development of cleaner and more sustainable sanitation technologies has become increasingly important for poultry production systems. This study developed and validated an industrial-scale continuous Thermal sanitization system designed to reduce TBC contamination in rice husk bedding while improving resource-use efficiency. The system integrated screw-assisted biomass transport with controlled hot-air recirculation to enhance residence-time stability, airflow uniformity, and heat-transfer performance during continuous operation. Thermal and microbiological evaluations were conducted through laboratory validation, pilot-scale optimization, and full-scale industrial implementation. Under optimized operating conditions, the Thermal sanitization chamber-maintained temperatures between 115 and 125 °C, achieving rice husk outlet temperatures of 95–100 °C with residence times of 15–17 min and processing capacities of 2.0–2.5 t h−1. The developed technology significantly reduced TBC occurrence from approximately 16% before treatment to 4% after sterilization while simultaneously improving thermal utilization efficiency through hot-air recirculation. Sanitization performance was influenced by the initial moisture content of the incoming rice husk feedstock, while the treated product exhibited a final moisture content of approximately 4.1–4.5%. Over a three-year operational period, approximately 7.87 million kg of rice husk bedding were processed, generating cumulative cost savings exceeding USD 0.30 million. The results demonstrate that continuous Thermal sanitization represents a technically effective, economically viable, and environmentally sustainable cleaner production technology that supports agricultural waste valorization, reduces dependence on chemical disinfectants, enhances poultry biosecurity, and contributes to the transition toward more circular and sustainable poultry production systems.
Plastic packaging offers significant potential for improvements compared to other hard-to-abate plastic uses. This study explores greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy consumption of various packaging materials along their value chains using a system dynamic modelling, applied to the EU-27. The replacement potential for low-density polyethylene (LDPE) carrier bags is assessed with alternatives: polylactic acid (PLA) plastics, kraft paper, and natural cotton. Both plastics are considered as single-use products, and kraft paper and natural cotton as multi-use products with low and high reuse levels assumed. Eight scenarios are examined, including four single-product scenarios (plastic as baseline, PLA bioplastic, paper and cotton) and four combined-product scenarios accounting for more complex interactions among material combinations, such as durability, reusability, productivity, and recoverability. In consumer preference scenario (50% cotton, 20% plastic, 20% paper and 10% bioplastic), with low reuse level, GHG emissions increase by 37.7%, while energy consumption decrease by 18.3% compared to the baseline. In contrast, high reuse frequency results in 20.3% decrease in GHG emissions and 45.1% reduction in energy consumption. This study offers valuable contributions to addressing critical environmental challenges (GHG emissions, energy consumption, plastic pollution) and identifying more sustainable systems regarding packaging life cycles.
Acetaminophen (ACT) is a toxic pharmaceutical contaminant frequently detected in wastewater, where conventional treatment methods are often ineffective. Consequently, the development and validation of alternative treatment technologies are required. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), characterized by the generation of highly reactive oxidizing species, represent a promising approach. In this work, the degradation of ACT was investigated using O3, H2O2, UV irradiation, and their synergistic combinations. Experiments were conducted with an initial ACT concentration of 100 mg/L in a 500 mL cylindrical reactor, and sample analysis was performed using UV-Vis spectroscopy. Variations in pH, color, and CO2 formation were monitored and correlated with by-product generation, while degradation intermediates were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A maximum degradation efficiency of 99% was achieved within 60 min using the H2O2/O3/UV system at an H2O2 concentration of 5 mg/L. The process followed first-order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.0376 min-1, resulting in 37 mg/L of CO2, 74% COD removal, a final color of 5 PCU, and an energy consumption of 23 kW·h/m3.
The building and construction sector faces an urgent need to minimize its carbon emissions and solid waste generation. In this context, reuse and recycling emerged as promising strategies to reduce these impacts without significantly increasing costs. However, employing reused and recycled materials introduces additional uncertainty into the overall project, particularly in lifecycle assessments and cost estimates. This challenges decision-making when selecting end-of-life and beyond-life pathways for construction products. Especially because previous studies have not quantitatively assessed this uncertainty, indicating a gap in the body of knowledge. To address these limitations, this research provides a Monte Carlo Simulation-based framework to evaluate the uncertainty in embodied carbon and the cost of salvaged materials and to support probabilistic decision-making. A case study was used to evaluate the implementation of the framework, in which the reuse and recycling of precast concrete panels for a new project were compared with the use of virgin materials. It was found that the Reuse and Recycle scenarios yielded lower mean values than virgin materials; however, they contained higher uncertainty. In particular, the Reuse Scenario had a mean value for embodied carbon of around half that of those in the baseline, but an uncertainty almost three times higher. The probabilistic analysis indicated that the Reuse Scenario had the highest probability of achieving embodied carbon and cost targets, providing savings of 32.84 kgCO2e/m2 and 242.07 $/m2. Beyond the specific results, the main contribution of this research is the uncertainty analysis and decision-support framework, which can be replicated in other projects.
Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is an advanced composite material adopted as an eco-friendly option to Portland cement concrete (PCC) owing to its economic, durability, and environmental benefits. However, its brittleness and the frequent need for heat curing still limit wider use. Additionally, there remains a noteworthy knowledge gap about the elevated-temperature resistance of glass fiber-reinforced GPC (GLFRGPC), particularly under different cooling regimes. In this study, we developed a structural GPC that hardens under ambient laboratory conditions and investigated how adding glass (GL) fibers and applying different cooling methods affect its resistance to high temperatures. Specimens were heated to 150, 300, 450, 600, and 750 °C for 1 hour and then cooled either in air or in water. Their performance was assessed using compressive and flexural strength, water absorption, weight loss, visual inspection, and SEM analysis. The best alkali-activation conditions were 12 M NaOH with an a/b ratio of 0.60. Both compressive and flexural strengths slightly improved up to 150–300 °C, but dropped noticeably beyond 450 °C as dehydration and cracking became dominant. Air-cooled specimens consistently retained higher residual strengths than water-cooled ones, highlighting the damaging effect of thermal shock during rapid cooling. Regarding fiber dosage, 0.6% GL fiber gave the best overall results, increasing residual compressive strength by about 33% compared to plain GPC at 750 °C (water-cooled), while also improving flexural behavior and reducing cracking severity. GL fibers at 0.3–0.6% generally helped reduce water absorption and weight loss, whereas 0.9% fiber increased water absorption due to workability and compaction problems that likely introduced extra pores. Overall, the results suggest that both fiber content and post-fire cooling conditions should be considered together when designing ambient-cured, fire-resilient structural GPC.
Increasing the scrap ratio in basic oxygen furnace steelmaking can reduce hot-metal dependence and carbon emissions, but it is limited by insufficient heat supply and safe regulation of material-energy flows. This study proposes a bottom-blown carbonaceous injection (BBCI) process for high-scrap-ratio converter steelmaking, in which graphite, sawdust biochar or zero-carbon biomass is injected through bottom tuyeres to compensate for the heat deficit during scrap melting. An integrated mass-energy balance model combined with life cycle assessment (LCA) was developed to evaluate the effects of scrap ratio (SR), effective CO-to-CO2 post-combustion ratio (ΔCCO2), powder-to-gas ratio and carbonaceous material properties on carbon emissions (CE), energy utilisation and process feasibility. The results show that ΔCCO2 is the dominant factor controlling carbonaceous material consumption. At 40% SR, increasing ΔCCO2 from 20% to 30% reduces carbon consumption by 27.76%. When zero-carbon biomass is used, converter-stage CE becomes negative, reaching −10.68 kg CO2/t steel. For the blast furnace (BF) –converter route, total CE decreases to 1,161 kg CO2/t steel, 29.59% lower than the baseline. BBCI therefore provides a feasible route for safer, resource-efficient and low-carbon converter steelmaking.
This study investigated the upcycling of grinding waste into metal-cored wire (MCW) for additive manufacturing (AM) via Directed Energy Deposition-Arc/Metal (DED-Arc/M). The waste originated from grinding the material X153CrMoV12 (1.2379, AISI D2), a cold work tool steel commonly used in toolmaking. Based on the chemical characterization of the recycled swarf and the use of the low-temperature transformation (LTT) approach in AM, X36CrMoWVTi10-3-2 tool steel was selected as the target material for upcycling. Following mechanical and thermal separation of the heterogeneous grinding slurry mixture, up to 36 mass% of grinding chips in the 63-125 μm fraction could be added to the powder filling of the MCW. Due to residual abrasive particles, the chip fractions showed higher C and Si content than the original material.Samples were fabricated by DED-Arc/M using both conventional and recycled-content MCWs. The samples produced exhibited almost identical properties. Despite the high density of both materials, exceeding 99.3%, larger individual pores were detected in the recycled material, presumably indicating incomplete separation of the cooling lubricants during the recycling process. Examinations using a scanning electron microscope revealed an identical microstructure. No abrasive particles remaining from the grinding process could be detected after AM. Instead, partially dissolved W- and C-rich particles with a high liquidus temperature from the MCWs were detected in both materials. Finally, the samples were found to have an identical hardness of ∼540 HV10 in the as-built state.
Hydrometallurgical zinc production generates large quantities of iron-rich sludges that pose a hazardous waste challenge due to their heavy metal content. This study presents a method for the selective removal of heavy metals from jarosite-type sludge through optimized roasting followed by a three-step leaching process using water, sodium chloride solution, and sodium hydroxide solution, at ambient conditions. Nearly 100% of zinc was selectively extracted by water leaching (L/S = 10, 1 h) after roasting at 700 °C for 1 h, while iron remained in the solid residue. Subsequently, ∼85% of lead was removed using sodium chloride solution (300 g/L NaCl, L/S = 10, 2 h), followed by >90% extraction of arsenic and residual lead via alkaline leaching (2 M NaOH, L/S = 10, 4 h), resulting in >98% total lead removal. The final solid residue contained 55 wt% iron, with the total heavy metal content reduced to below 1 wt%. Small-scale batch leaching experiments were validated by a continuous five-month column leaching experiment, which demonstrated comparable efficiency and selectivity for the removal of zinc, lead, and arsenic, while cumulative iron leaching remained as low as 0.06%. A 24-h batch leaching (shaking) test of the final residue showed a significant reduction in the leachability of cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc compared to the initial sludge to below their legal limit values for classification as hazardous waste. By enabling the recovery of valuable metals (zinc, lead) and a critical raw material (arsenic), this approach reduces the amount of hazardous waste and transforms a hazardous industrial residue into a potential secondary resource for the ironmaking industry and/or construction industry.
Wood ash (WA) is an abundant by-product of biomass combustion and represents a viable alternative supplementary cementitious material. However, its high physicochemical variability remains a major limitation to its effective utilization. This study investigates the influence of low ordinary Portland cement (PC) contents (0-20 wt%) on the stiffness, microstructural evolution and mineralogical composition of wood ash-based pastes. Four wood ashes of different origins were used to produce sixteen paste formulations. The modulus of elasticity was estimated from compressive strength using the tangent modulus approach, while microstructure and phase evolution were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) at 7 and 28 days of curing. The results show that increasing PC content considerably improves stiffness, compressive strength and bulk density, with optimal performance achieved at 20 wt% PC. Microstructural observations revealed matrix densification associated with the formation of hydration products, including calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), ettringite and portlandite. Mineralogical analysis indicated that WFA8- and WFA9-based pastes exhibited a broader range of crystalline phases compared with WFA3- and WBA-based systems, including the formation of additional phases such as alunite. Overall, the findings highlight the critical role of ash variability in governing material behavior and demonstrate that limited PC additions (5-20 wt%) can effectively enhance the stiffness, microstructure and mineralogical characteristics of wood ash-based pastes. These results support the development of sustainable low-strength cementitious materials incorporating high volumes of wood ash.
Improving the durability of rubber materials while reducing dependence on synthetic additives is essential for cleaner and more sustainable material systems. In this work, polyphenols extracted from red grape seeds and green tea leaves were evaluated as biomass-derived antioxidants and used to functionalize nanosilica recycled from waste battery separators. Radical-scavenging activity assessed by the DPPH assay showed that red grape seed extract (RGSE, EC50 = 15.42 μg /mL) exhibited significantly stronger antioxidant performance than green tea extract (GTE, EC50 = 70.79 μg /mL). The extracts were immobilized on recycled nanosilica through chemical anchoring and strong hydrogen-bond interactions, enabling uniform dispersion and improved interfacial adhesion in natural rubber-styrene butadiene rubber (NR-SBR) composites. Rubber nanocomposites containing bio-functionalized recycled nanosilica showed enhanced mechanical strength, thermo-oxidative stability, and ozone resistance compared with those incorporating unmodified recycled nanosilica. Among the formulations, RGSE-modified recycled nanosilica provided superior protection against accelerated aging, effectively mitigating surface cracking and mechanical degradation. These results demonstrate that combining low carbon black content (5 phr), recycled nanosilica reinforcement (15 phr), and small amounts of biomass-derived additives (1.5 phr) represents a promising sustainable strategy to extend the service life of green rubber nanocomposites through waste valorization and bio-based functionalization.
Oil and gas transportation pipelines are complex systems inherently susceptible to failure, with severe consequences. An effective risk management system is required to ensure the safe and efficient operation of pipelines. However, traditional models for pipeline integrity risk assessment are often conservative and struggle with uncertainty and non-linear relationships in complex operational data, resulting in reduced predictive accuracy and ineffective decision-making. This study proposes a novel risk model to enhance pipeline risk assessment. The framework builds on the Muhlbauer model and API RP 581 as baseline methodologies, integrating with an intuitionistic fuzzy deep neural network. Intuitionistic fuzzy sets explicitly represent uncertainty through membership and non-membership degrees, whereas deep neural networks capture complex non-linear patterns in risk-related data. The performance of the proposed framework was validated on real-world pipelines and compared with traditional approaches. The results demonstrate that the hybrid model improved predictive accuracy, provided more consistent risk estimation, and effectively managed data uncertainty and non-linearity. The proposed methodology offers an advanced decision-support tool for asset integrity management, enabling more effective, risk-informed pipeline inspection and maintenance strategies.
China has achieved substantial reductions in direct air pollutant emissions during its clean air transition. However, indirect emissions transmitted through inter-provincial supply chains continue to reshape the spatial patterns of pollution and its associated socioeconomic impacts. This study employs a systematic analytical framework that combines environmentally extended multiregional input–output (EEMRIO) analysis with ecological network theory to track the inter-provincial flow of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) from 2002 to 2017. It dynamically assesses the efficiency and robustness of embodied emission networks and develop a multidimensional inequality assessment framework to examine mismatches between embodied pollution burdens and economic returns, employment returns, and ecological carrying capacity. The results show that total national emissions declined substantially, while embodied emissions became increasingly concentrated in industrial supply chains, especially in material and equipment-manufacturing sectors. At the network level, both average efficiency and robustness declined for SO2 and PM, suggesting that aggregate emission reduction did not translate into stronger network resilience. The inequality assessment further reveals divergent trajectories across dimensions. Economic and social burden-return mismatches became more pronounced, whereas ecological inequality declined, indicating that embodied pollution pressure became less concentrated in regions with lower ecological carrying capacity. These findings reveal a governance paradox: aggregate emission reduction may coexist with weakening network resilience and persistent distributional inequality. Future air pollution governance should therefore move beyond direct emission control by incorporating embodied emission accounting, inter-provincial burden sharing, and structural adjustment policies to promote more equitable and resilient regional development.
Resource criticality is a multifaceted concept captured by assessment methods employing a wide range of indicators. One of these methods is ESSENZ, which applies 18 categories to assess criticality on product level. While this diversity of indicators allows for a comprehensive assessment, it can make application and interpretation challenging. To support a more practical implementation while maintaining comparable outcomes, QuintESSENZ is introduced as a streamlined version of the ESSENZ method considering six categories. The development of QuintESSENZ followed a five-step approach, in which existing ESSENZ categories were evaluated based on statistical correlation, background data quality, discriminatory power, relevance in established case studies, and a decision hierarchy assessment. From the ten categories in socio-economic availability, this procedure identified a core set of two categories: Political instability and Concentration of reserves. For physical availability and societal acceptance, the original three categories are applied. Environmental impacts are represented by the lead indicator Carbon footprint. A comparison of ESSENZ and QuintESSENZ indicator results for all 48 materials revealed a high level of consistency between the two methods, with both identifying the same materials as critical and minor differences in relative ordering. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the overall robustness of the category selection approach across different weighting schemes and data updates. While ESSENZ remains the recommended approach for a comprehensive resource efficiency assessment supporting strategic material selection and supply decisions, QuintESSENZ is intended as a first step to quickly identify potential hotspots that can be expanded upon in further analyses.
The widespread adoption of electric vehicles has created a need for efficient charging infrastructure. This paper proposes a stochastic programming model for the optimal sizing and configuration of electric vehicle charging stations, integrating charger selection and electricity procurement strategies. The model jointly determines the number and power capacity of chargers, photovoltaic self-generation units, battery energy storage systems, grid connection capacities, and transformer sizing under demand, solar availability and price uncertainties. The objective function minimizes expected total costs while accounting for risk aversion through the conditional value-at-risk metric. Integrating photovoltaic self-generation and battery storage is intended to support cleaner production by lowering grid dependency and enhancing the sustainability of electric mobility. Additionally, user preferences for charger types are included to better reflect real-world usage patterns. The model is applied to a realistic highway charging station in central Spain. Case studies demonstrate that the incorporation of photovoltaic energy reduces electricity procurement costs and grid dependency. Results show that taking into account charger preferences leads to a better estimation of the charging station’s expected revenues. Sensitivity analyses highlight the effects of pricing, demand, and battery cost reductions on optimal infrastructure design. The numerical results provide evidence to promote cleaner-production strategies for transport electrification, to strengthen the prioritization of renewable integration and to support socially responsible investment in low-carbon charging infrastructure.
This study presents an integrated engineering approach for the development of biodegradable oil-absorbent materials through the combined control of nanocomposite formulation and additive manufacturing parameters. Architecture-tunable polylactic acid (PLA)/nano-calcium carbonate (nCaCO3) composites were fabricated via material extrusion (MEX), enabling systematic variation of filler loading (0–5 wt%), infill density (25–75%), and lattice geometry. Rheological analysis revealed a non-monotonic melt flow behavior arising from the competing effects of particle dispersion and agglomeration, which directly influenced filament processability and print fidelity. Thermal characterization indicated that n CaCO3 functions as a heterogeneous nucleating agent, reducing the cold crystallization temperature while slightly decreasing thermal stability due to disruption of polymer chain packing. Microstructural evaluation confirmed homogeneous nanoparticle dispersion up to 5 wt%, although higher infill densities resulted in processing-induced defects that compromised structural integrity. Oil absorption performance exhibited a non-linear dependence on material composition but a strong dependence on structural architecture. Notably, the 25% honeycomb configuration demonstrated superior absorption capacity, attributable to its interconnected pore network and enhanced capillary transport pathways. Mechanical performance was primarily governed by infill density, while optimal reinforcement was achieved at 1–2 wt% CaCO3 due to improved interfacial interactions. Soil burial tests indicated that 1 wt% CaCO3 promoted accelerated biodegradation, achieving a maximum weight loss of 3.81% over 90 days. Overall, this study establishes a structure–process–property–sustainability relationship for additively manufactured biodegradable composites, demonstrating that architectural design plays a dominant role in functional performance. The findings provide a scalable engineering framework for the design of resource-efficient, biodegradable sorbents for environmental remediation applications.
