Antimicrobial resistance is regarded as one of the most acute problems of modern medicine, which needs new approaches to treatment. Quorum sensing (QS) is a complex cell-to-cell communication system in bacteria that controls production of virulence factors, biofilm formation, and antibiotic resistance, and has become a promising therapeutic target. Quorum sensing inhibition is an anti-virulence mechanism in comparison to traditional antibiotics, which have a high selective pressure, in that bacterial pathogenicity is affected rather than growth itself, which can make them less prone to selective pressure. This review gives a comprehensive argument on molecular quorum sensing, its processes in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, naturally occurring and artificial quorum sensing inhibitors, therapeutic potential of quorum sensing inhibitors based on in vitro and in vivo studies, and the barriers to clinical use. Conclusions: There is some evidence that quorum sensing inhibition particularly using in conjunction with traditional antibiotics has great potential as an alternative approach to multiple drug-resistant bacteria.
Objectives: The study was conducted at the Poultry Unit of Federal University, Kashere to investigate the effects of incorporating differently processed mango seed kernel meal i.e. toasted mango seed kernel meal (TMSKM) and fermented mango seed kernel meal (FMSKM) as partial replacement for maize in the diets of broiler chicken on the haematological and serum biochemical parameters. Methods: A total of 180 broiler chickens with similar weights were randomly allotted to six dietary treatments. The treatment group were toasted 0, 10 and 20% plus fermented at 0, 10 and 20% levels of inclusion coded as diet 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively, in a completely randomized design (CRD). Results: Haematological parameters such as neutrophils and platelets were significantly (p<0.001) affected, while all the parameters of serum biochemistry were not significantly (p<0.05) different The haematological and serum biochemical paramerters all fell within normal values for broiler chickens Based on the findings, Blood and serum biochemistry parameters were not affected by the dietary levels and processing method of mango seed kernel meal and most of the parameters obtained in this study fell within the normal range for healthy birds. Conclusion: Toasted mango seed kernel meal and fermented mango seed kernel meal at 20% level of inclusion in broiler diets had no adverse effects on haematoogical and serum biochemical parameters of broiler chickens.
Objectives: The primary objective of this study is to examine the recorded cases of Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) reported at the Antani Infectious Diseases Hospital and to analyze the spatial distribution of the disease across different regions of Afghanistan. In addition, the study aims to provide a clearer epidemiological overview by identifying patterns of occurrence and highlighting the public health significance of CCHF in the country. Methods: A retrospective, descriptive, and analytical study conducted by collecting data from patients who presented to the Antani Hospital and were diagnosed with Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever after confirmation by PCR testing. These patients were examined to the Kabul Infectious Diseases Hospital (Antani) from 27 March 2025 to 2 September 2025. Results: Overall, 468 patients were admitted to the CCHF ward of the Antani Hospital. Of these, 350 were male, and 118 were female, a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001). The patients had a mean age of 32 years; however, the age difference between males and females was not statistically significant (p = 0.224). Among all examined patients, 47 deaths were recorded, resulting in a case fatality rate (CFR) of 10%. The difference in mortality between males and females was not statistically significant (p = 0.153). These findings indicate that CCHF is prevalent in almost all parts of Afghanistan. Conclusion: The incidence of CCHF in Afghanistan is increasing. This study indicates that the mortality rate of CCHF in Afghanistan has decreased compared with previous years.
Objectives: The study was carried out to evaluate the effects of Leucaena leucocephala leaf -meal based diets on the haematological and serum biochemical parameters of growing Red Sokoto Bucks (RSB) fed a basal diet of Digitaria horizantalis. Methods: Sixteen (16) growing Red Sokoto bucks averagely 8 - 9 months of age, weighing 10 - 11 kg +- 0.5 were used for the study. Four treatment supplement (0, 5, 10 and 15%) inclusion levels of leucaena leaf meal were formulated and designated as T1, T2, T3 and T4 respectively. The bucks were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and weekly thereafter, while feed intake was recorded daily. The experimental design is a complete randomized design (CRD) the experiment lasted for a period of sixty-three (63) days after an adjustment period of 14 days. Data collected were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Proximate composition of the supplemental diet, (Leucaena leucocephala Leaf meal) and the basal diet (Digitaria horizantalis) were determined using the methods of AOAC, (2005). Results: The result revealed significant (p<0.05) difference in all the Haematological and serum biochemical indices of the bucks, but almost all the values fell within the normal range of haematology and serum values for healthy Red Sokoto bucks. Conclusion: Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal can be included in supplement diets for red Sokoto goats up to 15% without adverse effects on the haematological and serum biochemical parameters of red sokoto goats.
Objectives: This paper aims to evaluate the microbiological quality of raw milk in Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan, and to identify factors influencing its safety. Despite widespread consumption of raw milk in the districts, limited data exist at the district level regarding bacterial contamination and potential public health risks. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted, in which 80 raw milk samples were collected from cow and buffalo sources across four districts during different seasons. Standard microbiological methods were employed to determine total bacterial load and to detect coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli as indicators of hygiene and potential health hazards. The study assessed the influence of animal source, seasonal variation, and local handling practices on milk contamination. Results: Considerable variations in microbial contamination were observed among districts, seasons, and milk sources. Higher bacterial counts were recorded during warmer periods compared to winter, and cow milk showed greater contamination than buffalo milk. Districts with poor sanitation and inadequate handling practices exhibited higher microbial loads. The presence of hygiene-related bacteria in a significant proportion of samples indicates suboptimal milking, storage, and transportation conditions. Conclusion: Consumption of raw milk in the study area may pose public health risks. The study underscores the need for improved hygienic practices, farmer awareness programs, and routine monitoring of milk quality. These findings provide baseline data to support food safety planning and future research on microbiological quality of raw milk in Nangarhar Province.
Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate the knowledge of causes and management of malaria by students of university of Abuja, with an aim to addressing the disease contribution to the failure rates and absenteeism on the campus. Methods: Close-ended questionnaire were prepared and distributed to the 373 eligible undergraduate students of the University to determine their knowledge and management of malaria infection. Results: Approximately 362 (97%) of the respondents perceived mosquitoes as agent of transmission of malaria parasite. Fever as a primary symptom of malaria, was strongly agreed to by 87.4%. Approximately 88.7% and 83.9% participants believed that the university health facility respectively lacked sufficient drugs and doctors to treat malaria. Conclusion: This study has shown that the undergraduate students of University of Abuja, Nigeria possessed moderate knowledge but poor management of malaria. This may be contributing to high morbidity and reservoir population on the campus. We advise on sustained and diversified public health education on the subject matter in the university.
Objectives: The study aims to detect Schistosoma haematobium and identify associated risk factors among children and adolescents. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in El-Miskin and Fariahh internally displaced persons (IDPs) camps in Jere Local Government Area (LGA), Borno State, to identify risk factors associated with Schistosoma haematobium infection among children and adolescents. A total of 279 urine samples were collected and transported to the laboratory for analysis. Detection of Schistosoma eggs was performed using the centrifugation–sedimentation technique. Results: Among male participants (n = 160), the prevalence was 16.9%, while females (n = 119) had a prevalence of 10.9%; however, no significant association was found between gender and infection status (X^2 = 1.47, p = 0.23). The highest prevalence was observed in the 9-11year age group (n = 24; 62.5%), with a statistically significant association between age and Schistosoma infection (X^2 = 27.96, p < 0.05). Conclusion: The study recommends further research into the risk of Schistosoma haematobium in children among IDPs, especially among male respondents who are more at risk of the infection due to their constant exposure to contaminated water around the IDP camps.
Objectives: This study reports the economic impact of common dairy diseases in Jordan. Methods: Data on disease diagnoses and treatments were extracted from electronic farm records of a single, large-scale, intensively managed dairy farm located over a two-year period (2015-2016). During the same period, monthly expenses were obtained and categorized into therapeutic classes, such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, hormones, vaccines, disinfectants, and miscellaneous items. For the economic analysis, only variable costs including veterinary fees, medication costs, and estimated discarded milk due to treatment withdrawal periods were considered. Results: Lameness, acute mastitis, endometritis, acute metritis and clinical ketosis were the most significant (p < 0.05) contributors to the disease burden, with prevalence rates of 25%, 20%, 18%, 15%, and 15%, respectively. The most significant (p < 0.05) contributors to the disease economic impact were dystocia with cesarean section (200 JOD, or 282 USD), followed by dystocia without cesarean section (160 JOD, or 225 USD), displaced abomasum (158 JOD, or 222 USD), and acute mastitis (143 JOD, or 201 USD). The average monthly farm expense was 8,088 +- 809 JOD (11,404 +- 1,140 USD), with antibiotics being the most significant (p < 0.05) contributor (2,862 +- 350 JOD, or 4,035 +- 493 USD), followed by vaccines (1,264 +- 150 JOD, or 1,782 +- 211 USD) and disinfectants (1,000 +- 100 JOD, or 1,410 +- 141 USD). Conclusion: These findings highlight the significant economic burden of common diseases on this specific dairy operation and the urgent need for targeted interventions to prevent various diseases affecting dairy cattle.
Objectives: Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) exhibits substantial heterogeneity in clinical and histologic presentation. This study aimed to explore latent patient subgroups through unsupervised machine learning and assess whether these clusters offer meaningful stratification beyond conventional histopathological classifications. Methods & Results: A retrospective cohort of 57 histologically confirmed FSGS patients was studied. Of these, 30 patients with complete biochemical data were included in the clustering analysis. Immune complex deposition was analyzed in the full 57-patient cohort. Thirty (30) FSGS patients was analyzed using four quantitative clinical variables: age, proteinuria, serum albumin, and serum creatinine. Principal component analysis (PCA) followed by k-means clustering (k=3) identified three distinct patient clusters. Cluster 0 comprised older patients with moderate proteinuria and hypoalbuminemia but the highest serum creatinine, suggesting chronic renal dysfunction. Cluster 1 featured the youngest patients with mild proteinuria and preserved renal function, consistent with early or less aggressive disease. Cluster 2 exhibited the most severe nephrotic phenotype with high proteinuria and hypoalbuminemia but moderate renal impairment. Histopathological parameters, including glomerular sclerosis and tubulointerstitial injury, showed only weak associations with biochemical severity. Additionally, patients with C3 deposition demonstrated significantly higher serum creatinine compared to those without (p = 0.031), implicating complement activation in renal injury. Conclusion: Unsupervised clustering uncovered three clinically meaningful FSGS phenotypes that may reflect disease stage and severity more accurately than histologic scoring alone. These findings support the utility of data-driven patient stratification in augmenting risk assessment and guiding therapeutic strategies.
Objectives: This study was aimed to assess the five- year (2019 - 2023) anthrax occurrence and vaccination coverage trend in the South Ethiopia Region to get valuable input for future intervention. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted based on a five-year (2019 - 2023) anthrax occurrence and vaccination coverage report data retrieved from two regional laboratories in South Ethiopia and South Ethiopia Bureau of Agriculture Department of Animal Health. Results: In this study, a total of 13 animal anthrax reported events were recorded in this five- year interval. The highest outbreak was recorded in South Omo zone 30.8% (4/13) and the lowest anthrax occurrence was reported from Ale, Basketo and Ari zone 7.7% (1/13). The highest vaccination coverage was in 2019 recorded at 2,899,001 doses followed by 2020 which was 2,788,136 and the lowest was recorded in 2021 was 1,106,997 doses. A total of 189 cases of anthrax in animals and 174 animal deaths due to anthrax were reported. The highest numbers of animal anthrax cases were reported in 2020 (n = 116) sharing 31.96% of the 5- year animal anthrax reported. The highest number of animal deaths due to anthrax (n = 72) in 2022. The overall cases fatality rate of anthrax was 47.93%. The highest cases of anthrax were registered in May (n = 64), and no anthrax cases were reported during November, December, and March. The highest and the lowest number of animal deaths due to anthrax were reported during October (n = 57) and April (n = 8), respectively. Conclusion: Anthrax cases have occurred in all the seasons of the year; however, the relatively highest cases of anthrax were reported in the hot dry season (n = 78; 41.3%) whereas the lowest was reported during the post- rainy season (n=10; 5.3%). In conclusion, the current study showed a considerable number of animal anthrax cases and deaths in the South Ethiopia Region in five- year. Therefore, it is necessary to practice prevention strategies including immunization programs before the peak season of anthrax occurrence.
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the association between ABO blood group types, renal failure, and the severity of COVID-19 infection. Methods: A Cross-Sectional Study was Conducted on 198 Confirmed Covid-19 Patients Admitted to Icu Isolation Centers in Sudan from January 2021 to January 2022. Blood Groups Were Determined Using the Slide Method. Renal Failure was Defined as Acute Kidney Injury (Aki) Meeting Kdigo 2012 Criteria or the Need for Renal Replacement Therapy (Rrt). Statistical Analysis was Performed Using SPSS Version 20; Odds Ratios (or) With 95% Confidence Intervals (Ci) Were Calculated Via Chi-Square Test. Results: Of The 198 Patients, 29 (14.6%) Developed Renal Failure. Blood Group a was Significantly Associated with Renal Failure (Or = 2.500, 95% Ci: 1.078-5.797, P = 0.030). in Contrast, Blood Group O Showed A Protective Trend (Or = 0.419, 95% Ci: 0.180-0.973, P = 0.030). Groups Ab and B Showed No Statistically Significant Association. Conclusion: Blood Group A May Be a Risk Factor for Renal Failure in Hospitalized Covid-19 Patients, While Blood Group O May Confer Protection. Further Studies are Needed to Confirm these Associations and Explore Underlying Mechanisms.
Objectives: The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in advancing modern healthcare while addressing its alignment with sustainable development goals. The study aims to highlight both the benefits of AI applications in medicine and the challenges associated with their ethical use, data privacy, and environmental impact. Methods: This paper adopts a qualitative review approach, synthesizing recent literature and case studies related to AI in disease detection, medical imaging, clinical trials, and drug development. It compares the advantages of AI systems over traditional methods and evaluates their implications for healthcare delivery, sustainability, and policy. Results: Findings indicate that AI enhances diagnostic speed and accuracy, supports drug discovery efficiency, and improves healthcare accessibility. However, limitations such as data scarcity for rare diseases, potential biases in algorithms, and high energy consumption remain significant challenges. Real-world examples, including biased dermatology algorithms and AI-enabled imaging tools, illustrate both the transformative potential and risks of AI. Conclusion: AI has the capacity to revolutionize healthcare if guided by ethical frameworks, sustainable practices, and robust governance. Practical steps such as adopting federated learning to safeguard data privacy and investing in green AI technologies can ensure responsible innovation.
Objectives: This study aimed to assess the prevalence of HBV, analyze its distribution across different demographic groups (age, gender, marital status), and identify risk factors associated with HBV infection in the population of Nineveh to guide public health interventions. Methods: A descriptive study data was conducted using hospital records from Ibn-Sina Hospital in Mosul city from (February 2024 - January 2025). 16,900 individuals screened for HBV using ELISA were analyzed. The statistical analysis including calculations, measures, chi-square tests, relative risk, and geographical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25. Results: The overall HBV prevalence among the screened population was 0.72%. A significant association was found between age and HBV infection (X2=59.03, p<0.0001), with the highest prevalence in individuals over 40 years old (63.11%). Males exhibited a slightly higher prevalence (0.75%) compared to females (0.70%). Married individuals had a higher HBV prevalence than single individuals. Surgical procedures were identified as a significant risk factor, with surgical patients having a 43.26 times higher risk of HBV infection compared to dialysis patients. September 2024 recorded the highest number of HBV positive cases (16), while April 2024 had the lowest (4). Conclusion: Strengthening preventative measures such as maternal screening, occupational safety protocols, increased screening programs for older adults, and improved healthcare access in rural areas are crucial for effective HBV control in Nineveh.
Objectives: This paper advocates for a practical approach to empirically determine the anthelmintic therapeutic potential and immunopotentiating properties of these plants. Methods: Experimental animal/parasite models, namely the tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta in mice, the nematode Ascaridia galli in chickens, as well as the tapeworm Raillietina cesticillus in chickens-are proposed for this purpose. Results: Evidence of therapeutically effective and immunopotentiating medicinal plants from the Kingdom derived from this study will pave the way for the development of effective, safe, and relatively low-cost anthelmintic drugs and immunostimulants. Conclusion: We emphasize that this is a proposed methodology paper. While our focus is on Saudi Arabia, the techniques are broadly applicable worldwide.
Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of coliform bacteria in Mudaffara cheese from local markets in Khartoum City. Methods: This is a descriptive cross-sectional study designed to isolate coliform bacteria from Mudaffara cheese in the markets of Khartoum. The study was designed to investigate the presence of coliform bacteria in Mudaffara cheese obtained from the producers and supermarkets of the Khartoum Locality. Results: The results of coliform bacterial isolation have revealed the presence of 3 species of bacteria including 6 (14.3%) isolates of E. coli, 4 (9.5%) isolates of Salmonella spp, 2 (4.8%) isolates of Shigella spp. This study concluded that Mudaffara cheese is produced and marketed in Khartoum by traditional procedures, which might subject the product to deterioration in quality. Moreover, if the contaminated cheese is consumed it can be a source of potential pathogens. Conclusion: Therefore, it is necessary that cheese must be produced and marketed according to the standards and regulations.
Objectives: in order to ascertain the current serological prevalence and the risk factors associated with it. Methods: A structured questionnaire was designed and administered by the consented study participants in the area. A total of 384 cattle, Sera samples were screened for evidence of brucellosis using the Rose Bengal Test (RBT), with positive results confirmed by the Complement Fixation Test (CFT). The Statistical Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 22) was used to analyze the data. We have described the significant association between the seroprevalence of Brucella and explanatory variables. Results: The overall animal level prevalence was 6 (1.6%) animals were seropositive for Brucella in RBPT and 4 (1.0%) in CFT. The result of the sero pre-valence study showed that statistically significant variation was observed in animals with abortion histories, since animals with a history of abortion had a nearly 12-fold higher chance of testing positive for Brucella than animals without a history of abortion (P = 0.019; OR = 11.81; CI = 1.513-92.157). However, the seroprevalence of Brucella with respect to host-specific risk factors sex, age, body condition, and parity in multivariable regression analysis did not show a statistically significant association with the seroprevalence of Brucella (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The current study demonstrated that brucellosis was common in the cattle in the study area, resulting in production losses, economic loss, and public health importance. Therefore, in order to develop suitable and successful control and prevention strategies against the disease throughout the study area, sero surveilance and monitoring systems need to control brucellosis.
Objectives: This study aimed to assess community awareness, knowledge, and practices regarding rabies in the Wondo Genet district. Methods: A questionnaire survey was conducted among local residents with multistage sampling procedure. Results: An overwhelming 98.6% of respondents are aware of rabies, with dogs identified as the most affected species (48.2%), followed by cats (23.6%) and humans (13.7%). While 47.1% identified the rabies virus as the causative agent, 82.5% understood transmission pathways, predominantly recognizing bites as the primary method (49.6%). While a substantial 91.8% of respondents acknowledged the fatal nature of rabies in animals, gaps in knowledge were evident, particularly regarding post-exposure prophylaxis; only 27.9% were aware of its existence, and a mere 23.3% believed vaccination should occur immediately after exposure. The community perceives children as the most at risk (49.9%) from rabies, highlighting the need for targeted educational efforts. Additionally, the survey indicated a strong community sentiment regarding the seriousness of rabies with 68.5% and 73.4% supporting the importance of community awareness programs. However, misconceptions persist, as 67.4% of respondents believe only dogs can transmit rabies to humans. On vaccination, 89.5% concurred on its effectiveness for dogs, and 80.8% of pet owners reported vaccinating their animals against rabies, though only 17.8% maintained vaccination records. Respondents reported that in the event of bites from potentially rabid animals, half (49.0%) would seek post-exposure vaccination, while others would consider traditional treatments (34.2%) or consult spiritual healers (15.3%). Community actions towards suspected rabid animals varied, with 44.4% opting to kill them and 27.7% notifying authorities. The findings underscore a proactive community attitude toward vaccination and appropriate post-bite treatment yet highlight for improvement in awareness regarding transmission. Conclusion: While there is a high level of awareness and concern about rabies in the Wondo Genet District, the study reveals critical knowledge gaps regarding post-exposure interventions and misconceptions about rabies transmission. These findings indicate an urgent need for enhanced community education initiatives to mitigate the risks associated with this preventable disease.
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) is an acute zoonotic viral sickness which originates from Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus CCHFV and spreads through Hyalomma ticks and infected blood and fluids from affected persons. This potent virus currently exists naturally throughout Africa the Balkans and the Middle East together with some Asian countries and Iraq sees its cases rise because of ecological reasons as well as unrestricted commercial livestock trade. CCHF manifests clinically in two ways from commonplace influenza symptoms to dangerous bleeding complications leading to a high death toll of 40% mortality. Host cell entry and replication take place during its life cycle because ticks connect animals and humans for pathogen transmission. Lab tests using Real- Time Polymerase Chain Reaction RT-PCR and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA detect CCHF, and supportive healthcare serves patients including fluid replacement with symptom care. Scientists continue working on vaccine development for the disease since no approved version exists at present. Seasonal spikes in Iraq exist that match the activity patterns of ticks during specific times of the year. Prevention strategies mainly include controlling tick populations and managing livestock management and protecting healthcare workers and actively educating the public. The study emphasizes the need to expedite work on surveillance technologies and vaccines and diagnostic systems to reduce the impact of the disease. The long-term control of CCHF requires integrating One Health programs that unite human health with animal health and environmental health. Controlling CCHF requires a medical and epidemiological approach together with strengthened community support to stop the disease from spreading during ongoing outbreaks.
Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the dietary effects of Moringa oleifera leaves on the postnatal development of the rat testis and puberty time. Methods: One hundred and twenty, 21-day-old male Wistar albino rats were used in this study. The rats were divided equally into 4 groups (n = 30 per group); as group 1 (control; fed a standard diet) and groups 2, 3 and 4 (fed a standard diet supplemented with 500, 1000, 1500 mg/kg b.w. of Moringa oleifera leaves powder; respectively). The rats were euthanized at 5, 6,7, 8, and 9 weeks of age. Testis samples were collected immediately after euthanasia and processed for light microscopy. Results: Groups 2, 3 and 4 showed increased number of Leydig cells and germinal cells, early lumen formation and early appearance of spermatozoa in the lumen compared with the control group. However, these observations were more conspicuous in group 4 than groups 2 and 3. Group 4 reached puberty earlier and showed increased sperm production compared with other treated and control groups, suggesting that the most effective concentration of Moringa leaves powder supplementation in rats is 1500 mg/ Kg body weight. Conclusions: Moringa oleifera leaves induce postnatal development of the testis and enhance sperm production, leading to early puberty and high fertility.
Objectives: Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is widely recognized for its unique ability to dissolve tissues, making it a common choice for the exsheathment of nematode larvae in various studies. This chemical has frequently been utilized for larval exsheathing at different concentrations, with exposure durations varying significantly across studies. However, concerns have been raised regarding the impact of this compound on the viability of exsheathed larvae. The current study aimed to identify the optimal chemical concentration and the shortest exposure time that can be used without compromising larval viability, using third-stage strongylid larvae cultured from donkey fecal material as a model. Methods: Larvae were treated with NaOCl concentrations of 0.025%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, or 3% and observed for 3-, 5-, or 10 minutes post-treatment. Visual immobility and noticeable morphological changes were used as criteria for assessing viability. Results: The results indicate that a concentration of 0.025% is optimal, as it does not adversely affect larval viability even after 10 minutes of exposure. In contrast, a significant reduction in the proportion of motile larvae was observed when the concentration was increased to 0.05%, with 6.02% of the 415 larvae analyzed exhibiting sluggishness. Higher concentrations were associated with decreased motility or immobilization of the larvae. At the extreme concentration of 3%, the larvae exhibited significant damage. Conclusions: Given the widespread use of NaOCl as an artificial exsheathing agent for nematode larvae and the variety of protocols employed, the current findings provide a valuable reference for researchers utilizing NaOCl in nematode studies.
