Bulbophyllum is a large and highly diverse genus of the family Orchidaceae. Investigations in the Northeast Indian region have revealed an abundance of various Bulbophyllum species. However, the taxonomy and phylogeny of these North-eastern species still remain unresolved. This study is the first comprehensive phylogenetic assessment of 20 species of Bulbophyllum from Northeast India, revealing new insights into their relationships. The complete nuclear ITS region (nrITS) (ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2) and the non-coding psbA-trnH intergenic spacer of plastid DNA, together with the morphometric characters were used to resolve the phylogeny of Bulbophyllum species of Northeast India. Individual as well as combined datasets were analysed to evaluate marker performance and overall resolution. The nrITS dataset showed better resolving ability as compared to plastid DNA marker. Phylogenetic trees generated from the combined analysis of morphological and molecular dataset provided the most robust phylogenetic framework, particularly at the sectional level. The results support the inclusion of B. reptans in the section Reptantia, rather than in Racemosae. The three species viz. B. odoratissimum, B. trichocephalum and B. cauliflorum were found to have a closer relationship suggesting that they belong to the same section. The section Desmosanthes needs further investigation to re-define its boundaries. Overall, this integrative approach improves the resolution of phylogenetic relationships within Bulbophyllum and provides a refined taxonomic framework. Furthermore, taxonomic key for the 20 species has also been developed to facilitate accurate identification, based on reliable diagnostic traits.
Osteoporosis (OP) is a metabolic condition primarily affecting older and postmenopausal women. It is characterized by decreased bone mineral density (BMD), reduced strength, and deteriorated bone microarchitecture. This drastically increases the risk of debilitating fragility fractures and chronic discomfort, severely harming quality of life. Current anti-OP medications can slow bone resorption but often fail to target bone tissue directly, resulting in significant systemic toxicity. A promising solution is nanodrug delivery designed to specifically target bones. This approach minimizes adverse effects by precisely transporting therapeutics to the skeletal site. Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is an ideal material for this purpose due to its close resemblance to human bone mineral. HAP-based nanosystems advanced treatment strategy by enhancing bone targeting, improving drug loading capacity, and optimizing release kinetics and biocompatibility. Furthermore, HAP composite scaffolds hold great promise for bone regeneration. Incorporating bioactive molecules and drugs into these composites facilitates the repair of bone defects. This local delivery method provides the necessary biological activity to directly enhance the bone regeneration process. This review explores recent advancements in HAP-based nanosystems for OP, focusing on their therapeutic mechanisms, interactions with bone tissue, clinical applications, underscoring their superior efficacy, and promising future. However, key challenges remain in translating these systems to clinical practice, including large-scale manufacturing, long-term safety evaluation, and the need for well-designed clinical studies to validate their therapeutic potential.
Klebsiella pneumoniae is a major global health threat due to the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which severely limits treatment options. Although horizontal gene transfer of mobile genetic elements is a key driver of multidrug resistance, this study explores how adaptive evolution within the core genome may also contribute to the clinical success of resistant strains. Using whole-genome sequencing-based pangenome analysis of clinically relevant classical K. pneumoniae isolates, we identified 3159 variants distributed across 414 core genes, indicating that even highly conserved cellular functions accumulate mutations in clinical environments. Functional enrichment analysis revealed a significant concentration of mutations in the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) pathway, a central component of protein synthesis and a known antibiotic target. Multiple missense variants were detected in eight aaRS genes, with the Asn366Asp mutation in metG present in all analyzed isolates. We hypothesize that this conserved, recurrent mutation may contribute to bacterial adaptation, potentially by modulating protein synthesis, although this proposed mechanism remains speculative and requires experimental validation. Recurrent mutations were also observed in ileS and leuS, both targets of existing antimicrobials, while a Ser480Pro mutation in pyrG (CTP synthase) was identified in several isolates. Overall, these findings highlight core genome variation as a potential contributor to antimicrobial resistance in K. pneumoniae and suggest that conserved mutations such as metG Asn366Asp may represent candidate genomic biomarkers warranting further investigation. Because this study is based solely on comparative genomics, the proposed functional and mechanistic interpretations should be regarded as hypotheses for future experimental testing.
A flavonoid compound known as tectochrysin (TEC), which is extracted from Alpinia Oxyphylla Miq, possesses anti-cancer properties across a range of cancer types. This study aims to investigate its role in reversing sorafenib (SR) resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the underlying mechanism. SR-resistant HCC cells (Huh7 SR and HCCLM3 SR) were generated through long-term induction of parental cells with escalating doses of SR. Cell viability was evaluated by CCK-8 assays. Cell proliferation was assessed by colony formation assays. Flow cytometry analysis was used to analyze cell apoptosis and cell cycle. Transwell and wound healing assays were applied to detect cell invasion and migration, respectively. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect ABCG2 expression and p-AKT nuclear translocation. Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) assay were performed to validate the binding of TEC to PI3K and ABCG2 protein. HCC cell-derived xenograft models were used to confirm the anti-cancer effects of TEC in vivo. Western blot analysis was employed to detect the levels of proteins related to apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and the PI3K/AKT/ABCG2 pathway in cells and tissues. TEC significantly augmented the sensitivity of SR-resistant HCC cell lines to SR, synergistically inhibiting cell proliferation and colony formation. Combination treatment with TEC and SR potently induced G1/S cell cycle arrest and promoted apoptosis, accompanied by regulation of Bcl-2, Bax, C-PARP, C-caspase-3. Furthermore, TEC combined with SR effectively suppressed cell migration, invasion, and EMT, upregulating E-cadherin while downregulating N-cadherin and Vimentin. Mechanistically, TEC combined with SR exerted inhibitory effects on the PI3K/AKT/ABCG2 signaling. Evidence for this includes reduced expression of ABCG2, p-AKT, and p-PI3K, compromised ABCG2 expression, and attenuated nuclear translocation of p-AKT. In vivo, TEC and SR synergistically inhibited the growth of xenograft tumors derived from SR-resistant cells and reduced the expression of Ki67, ABCG2, and PI3K/AKT pathway proteins. Our study illustrates that TEC alleviates SR-associated chemoresistance in HCC cells by restraining activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling and inhibiting ABCG2 expression. This finding identifies TEC as a potential candidate to tackle SR resistance in HCC.
Functional protein particles are emerging as versatile biomaterials with applications spanning nano-designs, drug delivery and biocatalysis. Their inherent biocompatibility, structural stability, and genetic modularity, when combined with nanoscale engineering, allow for the design of customizable systems with diverse functionalities. However, the reliable assembly of such nanostructures remains challenging due to the complexity of intermolecular interactions and surface charge variability. In this study, we present a modular strategy to assemble bioactive protein nanoparticles (NPs) using spontaneously crystallizing scaffolds derived from Bacillus thuringiensis. We generated stable, bioactive protein particles by genetically fusing the Cry1Ac scaffold to either monomeric red fluorescent protein or SpyTag002. These NPs maintained their structural integrity and fluorescence over extended period, highlighting their potential for sustained release applications. Modular recruitment on the NPs was achieved via the SpyTag/SpyCatcher system, a highly specific and covalent protein conjugation strategy, enabling targeted loading of functional proteins to the particle surface. Interestingly, SpyTag-embedded NPs exhibited pH-dependent binding to SpyCatcher, confirming the platform's pH-responsive functionality. The pH sensitivity and stability of these NPs position them as promising candidates for therapeutic delivery in acidic microenvironments, such as tumor tissues.
Fungal-host coevolution, intensified by climate change, is attracting greater efforts to characterize new virulence proteins to enable the protection of agricultural crops. Under PRISMA guidelines, in this systematic review we analyzed 122 experimental studies from the Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science databases, mapping heterologous expression systems for fungal phytopathogen proteins from crops such as wheat, maize, rice, and apple, among other agricultural commodities. The results reveal the predominance of Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, Nicotiana benthamiana, and filamentous fungi in structural and functional validation, both in vitro and in vivo. Although these heterologous hosts elucidate relevant pathogenicity mechanisms and immune suppression, gaps persist, such as the restricted use of filamentous fungi as models and the absence of standardized workflows for the integrated characterization of proteins across multiple hosts. By systematizing bibliometric trends and methodological approaches, this study reveals different strategies used to accelerate the analysis of fungal proteins, contributing to the advancement of molecular phytopathology and global food security.
R2R3-MYB transcription factors are typical members of the MYB transcription factor family and have been extensively investigated as key regulatory factors in the flavonoid metabolic pathway of model plants. Nonetheless, research on the functional characterization of R2R3-MYB genes remains limited in cotton. Here, we identified an R2R3-MYB gene GhMYBPA, which demonstrates predominant expression in the leaves of the Gossypium hirsutum cultivar XinCai20 (XC20). The coding sequence of the GhMYBPA is 765 bp. It contains two conserved MYB domains and demonstrates a close evolutionary relationship with other characterized proanthocyanidin metabolic regulators. The GhMYBPA-GFP fusion protein is enriched in the nucleus, and GhMYBPA exhibits significant transcriptional activation properties. Downregulation of GhMYBPA led to a significant decrease in proanthocyanidin levels in cotton leaves, whereas upregulation of GhMYBPA in Arabidopsis produced the opposite phenotype. Additionally, Arabidopsis lines overexpressing GhMYBPA exhibited enhanced tolerance to heat stress, with a significant upregulation of stress-responsive genes. The findings lay a foundation for investigating the function of GhMYBPA in Gossypium hirsutum, particularly regarding its involvement in proanthocyanidin accumulation and heat stress response.
Mitochondria are crucial for the plant and animal immunity. The effector protein MoCDIP4 reduces rice immunity by targeting the mitochondria-associated OsDjA9–OsDRP1E protein complex. The present study is focussed on how Magnaporthe oryzae, the fungus that causes rice blast disease, affects mitochondrial dynamics and inhibits innate immune responses in rice plants using molecular modelling, molecular dynamics simulations and free energy-based binding analysis. The protein structure prediction of the effector protein MoCDIP4 and the targets was carried out using artificial intelligence-based tool, AlphaFold. The MD simulation analysis of the effector protein showed significant changes in the secondary structure especially at its C-terminal. The protein–protein complex conformations for OsDjA9-OsDRP1E and OsDjA9-MoCDIP4 were predicted using ab initio molecular methods and energy minimised for enhanced sampling (accelerated) molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We found that MoCDIP4 targets and binds to the same N-terminal “fork-like” binding site on OsDjA9 which is required for OsDjA9–OsDRP1E complex formation, thereby, resulting in accumulation of OsDRP1E in the mitochondria. Moreover, OsDjA9 was found to undergo large conformational globular folding when bound to OsDRP1E as shown by increased root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) values and overall structural compactness. The binding free energy was calculated by Molecular Mechanics with Generalised Born and Surface Area Solvation (MM/GBSA) model where the OsDjA9–OsDRP1E complexes were scored at − 83.79 kcal/mol and the OsDjA9–MoCDIP4 scored at − 49.24 kcal/mol. The study also highlighted the key residues involved in the interaction of the effector protein as well as from the mitochondria-associated OsDjA9–OsDRP1E protein complex which would pave the path for studying the plant–pathogen interaction.
Bioreactors are known for their ability to provide a controlled environment for the cultivation of various biological systems. While microbial systems are primarily known for their speed and cost advantages in industrial enzyme and simple protein production, mammalian cell systems continue to be the platform for clinical therapies due to their complex glycosylation requirements and viral vector production. Moreover, plant cell-based systems offer a new production paradigm focused on biosafety and sustainability. The main challenge with traditional bioreactors is the shear stress that occurs when trying to deliver equal oxygen and nutrients to every cell in large-scale production, damaging the delicate cells. Another challenge is the uncontrolled microenvironments that lead to deviations in product quality. As in other fields, with the changing application and engineering approaches, the diversification and development of bioreactor systems continues unabated. Looking to the future, it is predicted that the transformation in bioreactor technologies, driven by digitalization, artificial intelligence, and customized bioreactor mechanisms, will close the gaps in traditional approaches. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of bioreactor technologies with a particular focus on their biological diversity, engineering design, and functional principles by systematically examining microbial, mammalian, and plant bioreactor systems.
Starch physicochemical properties are key determinants of rice (Oryza sativa L.) grain quality, influencing cooking performance, texture, nutritional value, and industrial functionality. Among the genes regulating starch biosynthesis, Wx (encoding granule-bound starch synthase I, GBSSI) and SSIIa (starch synthase IIa) are major-effect loci controlling amylose content and amylopectin chain length distribution, respectively. Although classical studies identified major functional polymorphisms within these genes, recent genomic analyses reveal extensive haplotypic diversity that better explains quantitative variation in starch traits across diverse rice germplasm. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the molecular structure, regulation, and allelic diversity of Wx and SSIIa, highlighting the importance of haplotype-based approaches for interpreting starch physicochemical behavior. Wx haplotypes primarily modulate amylose accumulation and associated properties such as gel consistency, pasting characteristics, and resistant starch formation, whereas SSIIa haplotypes largely determine gelatinization temperature and amylopectin structural organization. Evidence from association mapping and population genomic studies further demonstrates that combined Wx–SSIIa haplotypes exert additive and epistatic effects on starch thermal properties, pasting profiles, and eating quality traits. Environmental factors, particularly temperature during grain filling, also influence gene expression and starch structure, generating important genotype × environment interactions. Integration of haplotype information into molecular breeding, genomic prediction, and genome editing strategies provides powerful opportunities to develop rice varieties with tailored starch functionality and improved quality under changing climatic conditions.
Exosomes, which transport miRNAs in vivo, hold significant therapeutic potential for treating diseases. Current methods for loading miRNAs into exosomes include sonication, co-incubation, kit-based transfection, and electroporation, with electroporation being the most efficient and widely used approach. However, standardized protocols for electroporation conditions remain lacking, necessitating the optimization of electroporation parameters to enhance the utility of extracellular vesicles as drug delivery vehicles in vivo. Platelets were isolated from healthy volunteer blood donors, and platelet-derived exosomes were extracted. The exosomes were labeled with specific dyes and loaded with miRNA using Bio-Rad Gene Pulser Electroporation buffer or 50 mM trehalose. Electroporation was performed at 150 V, 350 V, and 500 V. The miRNA-loaded exosomes were then co-incubated with cells. The efficiency of miRNA delivery was evaluated through fluorescence co-localization, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and qPCR. Our findings demonstrate that the Bio-Rad Gene Pulser Electroporation buffer is highly effective as an electroporation medium for exosomes. Optimal miRNA transfection efficiency and cellular uptake were achieved at 350 V, with significantly higher exosome internalization observed under these conditions. Utilizing the Bio-Rad Gene Pulser Electroporation buffer at 350 V enhances both miRNA loading efficiency into extracellular vesicles and subsequent cellular uptake. This study establishes an optimized electroporation protocol, addressing limitations in existing methodologies and advancing the potential of extracellular vesicles as a robust platform for miRNA-based therapeutic delivery.
Milk protein synthesis in goats is governed by multilevel regulatory mechanisms coordinating genetic, hormonal, nutritional, and cellular signals. Despite growing interest in goat milk proteins due to their distinctive nutritional properties, digestibility, and reduced allergenicity, their regulatory basis remains less characterised than other dairy species. This review integrates current knowledge on goat milk protein composition, genetic polymorphism, and molecular regulation, summarising structural and functional characteristics of caseins, whey proteins, and minor bioactive proteins. It examines how polymorphisms and haplotypes contribute to breed-specific variation in milk yield, composition, and physicochemical properties, highlighting JAK–STAT and mTOR signalling pathways’ central roles in integrating hormonal and nutritional signals that control transcription and translation. Evidence from GWAS, QTL analyses, transcriptomics, proteomics, and epigenetic studies outline the genomic architecture and stage-specific regulation of milk protein synthesis, while highlighting knowledge gaps and research opportunities. By integrating genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and epigenetic evidence, this review highlights candidate regulatory variants and molecular pathways underlying milk protein synthesis, providing a framework for functional validation, precision breeding, and the development of high-value goat dairy products.
DNA ligases are essential enzymes in all living organisms and viruses. They play critical roles in genome maintenance and recombination by sealing single-strand nicks and repairing damaged DNA. Due to these features, DNA ligases are widely used in gene cloning applications and in vitro processing of DNA. In this study, the DNA ligase–encoding gene from Trabzonvirus AP-T65 was cloned and sequenced. AP-T65 DNA ligase (AhyAP-T65Lig) shared 51.81
The ATP-citrate lyase gene (acl) was cloned and overexpressed in Ganoderma lingzhi. Overexpression of acl increased the accumulation of ganoderic acids (GAs) in G. lingzhi in both liquid shake culture and solid-state fermentation (SSF) conditions, with higher production observed in the SSF. In the SSF, the maximum contents of individual GAs (GA-Mk, GA-T, GA-S, and GA-Me) and total GAs in the acl-overexpressing G. lingzhi (ACL strain) reached 107.65 ± 3.19, 301.82 ± 27.38, 152.65 ± 15.28, and 259.77 ± 23.42 μg/100 mg dry weight (DW) and 9.47 ± 0.61 mg/100 mg DW, respectively, representing 1.42-, 1.74-, 2.01-, 1.85-, and 1.72-fold higher than those of the wild-type (WT) strain. The ACL strain also showed elevated ACL enzyme activity (145.23 ± 8.81 U/g) and acetyl-CoA content (74.85 ± 3.23 μg/g), which were 2.08 and 2.82 times greater than those of the WT strain, respectively. Additionally, the maximum levels of the key intermediates squalene and lanosterol were improved by 1.77- and 1.54-fold, respectively, and transcript levels of the genes encoding 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A enzyme (hmgr), squalene synthase (sqs), and lanosterol synthase (ls) were upregulated by 3.46-, 7.21-, and 5.85‐fold, respectively, compared with those in the WT strain. Collectively, these results demonstrate that overexpression of the acl is an effective strategy for enhancing GA biosynthesis in G. lingzhi.
The cultivation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) has become increasingly challenging due to various abiotic stresses such as elevated salinity and drought conditions, and these challenges will only worsen with climate change. This review highlights recent advancements in CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology as applied to developing rice for greater tolerance of abiotic stresses. Functional genomics analysis (including transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data) has identified and validated key regulatory genes and networks that affect plant response to abiotic stress. Researchers using CRISPR/Cas9 technology have made changes to both negative regulators (e.g., OsRR22 for salinity; OsDST for drought/salt) and positive (e.g., OsSAPK2 for drought) regulatory genes, producing transgene-free mutants displaying enhanced ion homeostasis and ROS scavenging as well as stomatal regulation and stability of yield under stress. Results from functional genomics indicate that polygenic regulatory networks, including the transcriptional regulators (NAC, WRKY, bHLH) and abscisic acid (ABA) signalling systems, are suitable for multiplex applications to produce a plant with broad-based stress resilience. Although functional genomic methods have been successful in the lab, there are still major issues with performance under field conditions when multiple stresses are present (e.g., genotype dependence, japonica bias, pleiotropic effects, and regulatory issues). The future integration of prime-editing, network mapping, and multi-site trial work will assist in the development of sustainable, superior quality indica varieties to help fulfill the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for food security.
This study focuses on the modification of chitosan (Cs) with silver oxide (Ag2O) nanoparticles and Berberis aristata (B. aristata) (denoted as BA) extract to develop advanced wound dressing films. Cs/Ag2O and Cs/Ag2O/BA films were fabricated via solution casting with TEOS cross-linking, incorporating ultrasonically dispersed Ag2O and BA extract under stirring, followed by structural, antimicrobial, and wound healing evaluation. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses confirmed the successful incorporation of Ag2O nanoparticles into the chitosan matrix, with characteristic shifts in the spectra and crystalline diffraction patterns. The antibacterial properties were assessed using the agar disk diffusion method, revealing that Cs/Ag2O/BA-3% films exhibited the highest inhibition zones of 17 mm against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and 16 mm against Streptococcus aureus (S. aureus), indicating strong antimicrobial efficacy. The films also demonstrated excellent swelling behavior, with a maximum water absorption of over 60% and showed remarkable hydrolytic and oxidative stability, with Cs/Ag2O/BA-3% exhibiting 19 and 82 days of stability, respectively. The enhanced swelling and stability indicate aptness for maintaining a moist wound environment, which is critical for rapid healing. In vivo wound healing studies conducted on a rabbit model showed that Cs/Ag2O/BA-3% promoted the most significant wound closure, with 98% closure by Day 7, compared to Cs-blank (84%) and commercial gauze (77%). These results highlight the potential of Cs/Ag2O/BA composites as effective, bioactive wound dressings with enhanced healing, antimicrobial, and stability properties, making them promising candidates for advanced wound care applications. In this context, and considering the worldwide increase in antibiotic-resistant infections and the growing need for bioactive wound dressings, these outcomes present a hopeful, affordable, and expandable approach to enhanced wound treatment. Hence, they show promising potential for application as bioactive wound dressings for infected and chronic wounds.
This study investigates the effects of sublethal and high-dose phosphine exposure on biocatalytic activity and gene expression of key antioxidants (catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) in T. castaneum populations: susceptible (LS), weakly resistant (WR), and strongly resistant (SR). Multigenerational bioassays demonstrated a marked increase in resistance, with WR and SR populations exhibiting resistance ratios exceeding 30-fold following repeated phosphine exposure. Biochemical analyses revealed a significant decline in catalase activity (1.28–2.25-fold) in WR and SR populations, whereas peroxidase activity increased substantially, particularly in SR populations exposed to sublethal (3.25-fold) and high-dose (3.45-fold) treatments. Gene expression analysis normalized to RPS18, showed downregulation of catalase transcripts in WR and SR populations, alongside pronounced upregulation of peroxidase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) genes with increasing resistance. Multiple regression analysis revealed a strong association (R2 > 0.85) between resistance levels, antioxidant enzyme activities, and corresponding gene expression profiles. This study explores phosphine exposure, antioxidant defences, and resistance in T. castaneum, underscoring the need for continuous monitoring and adaptive management for sustainable resistance.
The objective of this investigation was to determine the expression profile and latent mechanism of microRNA-181a-5p (miR-181a-5p) in the genesis and progression of papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). MiR-181a-5p was discovered to be upregulated in PTC tissues and cells in this study, as confirmed by RT‒qPCR and The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Notably, in PTC patients, the miR-181a-5p level was linked to tumor size and thyroid capsule invasion. A series of experiments demonstrated that miR-181a-5p upregulation in PTC cells notably enhanced proliferation, motility, and invasion, whereas suppressing miR-181a-5p hindered these functions. Western blotting revealed that miR-181a-5p suppressed PTEN expression, boosting the activation of phosphorylated AKT (P-AKT). According to predictive bioinformatics research and luciferase reporter gene tests, miR-181a-5p may target a specific binding site on the PTEN 3'UTR. To sum up, this study indicated that miR-181a-5p promoted PTC progression through the PTEN/Akt pathway. This investigation reveals a potential mechanism for PTC progression and provides a foundation for clinical therapies.
DNA-based Boolean logic gates represent a transformative platform in molecular computation, providing a bridge between biological processes. The field has advanced toward sophisticated designs incorporating spatiotemporal control. Distinguished by features such as massive parallelism, biocompatibility, energy efficiency, and programmability, DNA computing enables operations beyond the scope of silicon-based technologies. These qualities have enabled applications in biomedical diagnostics, autonomous biosensing, and therapeutic regulation. Furthermore, multi-layered circuit architectures, including neural network like designs, highlight the transition from basic proofs of concept to practical, application-oriented technologies. Key challenges remain particularly signal leakage, gate stability, scalability, and NOT gate constraints. Emerging solutions, such as photocaging for precise activation, enzyme-mediated processing for higher fidelity, and cost-effective array-based DNA synthesis, have improved reliability and scalability. Integration with artificial intelligence, machine learning, and bioelectronics is further advancing hybrid molecular electronic systems capable of coupling biological recognition with robust digital processing. Future progress depends on standardization, reproducibility, and economic scalability. The development of automated design frameworks, rigorous validation, and cost reduction strategies will be central to driving adoption. With immediate potential in diagnostics and environmental monitoring, DNA logic gates are shaping the foundation of molecular intelligence platforms.
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an essential antioxidant metalloenzyme that is critical for the cellular defense against oxidative damage, as it scavenges superoxide radicals and maintains the redox status. Cytosolic Cu/Zn-SOD is particularly important in the regulation of oxidative stress among different isoforms in higher plants. While Cu/Zn-SODs from several plant species have been characterized, molecular information is limited for Trachyspermum ammi, a medicinally important member of a family Apiaceae with antioxidant potential. In the present study, an integrated molecular and in silico approach has been taken to clone and analyze a Cu/Zn type SOD gene from T. ammi to get insight into its structural and evolutionary characteristics. PCR amplification yielded an open reading frame of 456 bp encoding a protein of 152 amino acids. Sequence analysis showed that plant Cu/Zn-SODs, especially those from Daucus carota, were highly similar to one another (about 90–95
