Water limitation is a major constraint to peanut production in highly permeable lahar soils, yet the effectiveness of integrating super water absorbents (SWA) with stage-specific irrigation under these conditions remains poorly understood. This study investigated whether combining SWA with strategically timed irrigation could improve peanut productivity while reducing irrigation inputs under drought-prone lahar-affected sandy loam. A randomized complete block design was used to compare conventional irrigation (emergence, VE; beginning flowering, R1; pod formation, R3; seed filling R5) with two reduced-irrigation strategies incorporating SWA: irrigation at VE alone and irrigation at VE plus pod development (R3). Irrigation management altered reproductive traits with minor effect on vegetative growth, flowering time, biomass production, or harvest index. The combination of SWA with irrigation at VE and R3 produced the highest pod number (32.35 pods plant⁻¹), pod yield (2.17 t ha⁻¹), and seed yield (1.35 t ha⁻¹), corresponding to increases of 26.9
Heavy metal contamination, particularly by lead (Pb), and drought stress severely impairs sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) growth and productivity. This study evaluated the efficiency of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), fulvic acid (FA), and chitosan nanoparticles (Ch − NPs) in mitigating Pb toxicity and drought stress in S. bicolor under a controlled pot experiment. Plants exposed to drought stress (PEG-6000 at − 0.5 MPa) and Pb stress (Pb (NO3) 2 at 100 ppm) showed reduced plant growth, gas exchange parameters, the ascorbate–glutathione (AsA–GSH) cycle, proline metabolism and rhizosphere microbial diversity in S. bicolor. Conversely, drought and Pb stress markedly increased oxidative stress biomarkers, as well as the levels and gene expression of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and also health risk indices. The application of PGPR, FA, and Ch − NPs significantly enhanced plant growth and biomass, improved gas exchange traits, increased the activity and expression of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, and microbial diversity and reduced MDA and H2O2 contents. Pb accumulation in S. bicolor declined, and also reduced health risk indices by lowering bioaccumulation and estimated dietary metal intake. Furthermore, these treatments suppressed excessive proline accumulation, and enhanced the AsA–GSH cycle in S. bicolor plants. These findings highlight the potential of PGPR, FA, and Ch − NPs as practical, eco-friendly strategies for improving crop performance under combined drought and heavy metal stress. Future studies may explore their field-level applicability, long-term soil health impacts, and integration with modern sustainable agriculture systems to strengthen crop resilience under changing climate conditions.
Phosphorus (P) is an indispensable nutrient and a limiting factor affecting plant growth and development. To address P deficiency in plants, synthetic phosphate fertilisers are often used despite concerns over their ecological impacts. The use of microbial and non-microbial biostimulants is a plausible, eco-friendly alternative to enhance plant P acquisition. In this study, the in vitro quantitative P-solubilising potential of four endophytic species (Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, Serratia marcescens, and Paenibacillus polymyxa) was evaluated. The P-acquisition-enhancing potential of endophyte-inoculated cucumber seedlings grown on P-starved hydroponic medium and supplemented with commercial seaweed biostimulant (Kelpak®) was also investigated. The four endophytic strains demonstrated the ability to solubilise the phosphates from substrates containing aluminium, calcium and iron. Aspergillus niger had the highest P-solubilising capacity from the three substrates. Under P-starvation, the four endophytic species had the capacity to colonise the internal tissues of the seedlings, and P-limitation led to a reduction in the root biomass, photosynthetic pigment concentration and root-to-shoot ratio in cucumber seedlings. However, endophytic inoculation and Kelpak® supplementation of the growth medium enhanced leaf area and foliar P content in cucumber seedlings. Endophytic inoculations with or without Kelpak® supplementation decreased phosphatase activity in root exudates of the seedlings. The results revealed that the four endophytic strains have the capacity to solubilise P and colonise cucumber root tissues. The endophytic species, in conjunction with the seaweed extract, enhanced the morpho-physio-biochemical adaptive responses of cucumber seedlings to P-limitation. Thus, inoculating cucumber seedlings with beneficial microbes and adding Kelpak® to the growth medium is a promising, sustainable strategy to enhance cucumber production under P limitation.
Emerging ncRNA technologies hold great promise in alleviating current agricultural production predicaments by revealing previously unappreciated complexities of ncRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression and cellular homeostasis. Here, the latest discoveries concerning ncRNA diversity and functionality that could contribute towards a more sustainable agriculture were reviewed. This article is categorized by major ncRNA categories which include: microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), small interfering RNA (siRNA), Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), Natural antisense transcripts (NATs), Circular RNAs (circRNAs) and ceRNAs. In addition, it summarizes each ncRNA category and their unique mechanisms of action in the plant kingdom. Because ncRNAs are involved in how plants deal with biotic and abiotic stress, mineral and nutrient acquisition, phytoremediation/ecosystem services and epigenetic regulation as well as genome editing/genetic engineering, they have the ability to improve crop yield, strengthen abiotic stress resistance, and allow for more efficient use of resources. Many recent developments in the field of computational biology and NGS technologies have aided in the identification of plant ncRNAs and their biological function. Additionally, recent technological advancements in ncRNA design, synthesis, delivery and bioavailability have made agricultural translation of this knowledge more plausible. Nevertheless, there are still many obstacles that must be overcome. These include but are not limited to: effective and targeted delivery of RNA, minimizing off-target effects, long term biosafety and regulatory clearances, validation of performance under varying field conditions and ethical and financial concerns of ncRNA-based agricultural technologies. Combined, these efforts will allow ncRNA-based agricultural technologies to become a crucial component of sustainable and environmentally friendly farming.
The tiller angle, shaped by shoot gravitropism, is a key feature of plant architecture. Plant hormones control a range of physiological processes that collectively determine the tiller angle. Karrikins (KARs) are bioactive butenolide compounds identified in smoke that regulate various processes of plant development. KARs, which are analogs of the proposed KARRIKIN INSENSITIVE2 (KAI2) ligand (KL), initiate downstream signaling events that closely resemble the pathway activated by another class of butenolide plant hormones known as strigolactones (SL). In rice, KAR/KL signaling has been demonstrated to influence mesocotyl elongation and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis; however, its role in regulating tiller angle remains to be elucidated. In this study, we demonstrate that the d14l (d14-like) mutant exhibits a smaller tiller angle, while the smax1 (suppressor of max2 1) mutant and the d14l/smax1 double mutants display a larger tiller angle. Consistently, the d14l mutant shows an enhanced shoot gravitropic response, whereas the smax1 mutant and the d14l/smax1 double mutant exhibit a reduced response. The activation of KAR/KL signaling attenuates the shoot gravitropic response primarily by suppressing gravity-responsive genes. Moreover, we found that the KAR/KL signaling pathway influences shoot gravitropism by regulating the expression of LAZY1 (LA1), a key regulator of tiller angle and shoot gravitropism. Together, this study reveals a novel molecular mechanism through which KAR/KL signaling controls plant architecture.
Satureja khuzistanica is an endemic medicinal plant of Iran, valued for its essential oil and phenolic compounds, but its cultivation in arid and semi‑arid regions is often limited by salinity stress. This study aimed to evaluate the combined effects of rhizobacterial inoculation (Azotobacter chroococcum+Azospirillum lipoferum) and foliar application of 24‑epibrassinolide (EBL) at 0, 1, and 2 µM on morpho‑physiological traits, mineral uptake, and phytochemical properties of S. khuzistanica under salt stress (0, 3, 6, and 9 dS/m NaCl). The experiment was conducted as a completely randomized factorial design with three replications. The results showed that the triple interaction of salinity× bacteria× EBL significantly affected most measured traits, except calcium content. Salinity reduced growth parameters, chlorophyll content, protein, and mineral elements, while increasing proline and soluble sugars. Bacterial inoculation combined with 2 µM EBL under non‑saline conditions resulted in the highest values for stem length (27.7 cm), root length (18.8 cm), fresh weight (11.11 g), dry weight (3.95 g), total chlorophyll (1.61 mg/g), and protein content (178.1 mg/g). The highest total phenolic content in the extract (3.27
Plants have evolved complex molecular networks that integrate nutritional signaling with stress-responsive mechanisms to maintain growth and survival under challenging environmental conditions. Recent research emphasizes dynamic interactions among key macronutrients (N, P, K) and micronutrients (Fe, Zn) signaling, and stress-responsive regulatory elements, including transcription factors (DREB, NAC, MYB, bZIP), kinases (SnRKs, MAPKs), and redox-sensitive proteins. This coordinated signaling ensures accurate regulation of antioxidant defense, osmolyte generation, ion homeostasis, and hormonal equilibrium during drought, salinity, heat, and nutrient-deficiency stresses. Nitrogen availability influences the expression of stress-related genes through nitrate transporters (NRTs) and nitric oxide (NO) signaling, whereas phosphorus deficiency regulates lipid remodelling and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification via PHR1 and SPX-domain proteins. Potassium controls stomatal conductance and osmotic adjustment, while Fe and Zn homeostasis influence ROS signaling and transcriptional reprogramming. Redox signals and secondary messengers, including Ca²⁺ and reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, further enhance these nutrient-stress interactions, orchestrating metabolic and transcriptional responses. Addressing this intricate interplay presents novel opportunities for developing crops with enhanced resilience and nutrient-use efficiency. This review consolidates recent advances in molecular, physiological, and omics-based research to clarify how the integration of nutritional stress influences plant adaptability, highlighting prospective targets for genetic and agronomic strategies aimed at sustainable crop production under climatic stress.
Ensuring genetic fidelity and proper antioxidant regulation is essential for synthetic seed technology and conservation of economically important plant species. In this study, we evaluated the effects of plant growth regulators (PGRs) and storage temperature on the germination and regeneration of encapsulated somatic embryos of Vaccinium membranaceum, while verifying genetic fidelity and physiological competence. The highest somatic embryogenesis was obtained from leaf explants cultured on berry basal medium (BM) containing 4.6 µM thidiazuron (TDZ) and 1.13 µM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). Somatic embryos were encapsulated in 3
Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that severely limits plant growth and productivity worldwide, particularly under changing climate conditions. Silicon (Si) has emerged as a promising approach for improving plant tolerance to salinity stress; however, its integrated physiological effects in perennial forage grasses remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the role of Si in alleviating salinity stress in Agropyron cristatum × A. desertorum cv. Hycrest-Mengnong under controlled conditions. Plants were exposed to 0, 100, and 200 mM NaCl with or without Si application, and growth, physiological, biochemical, and ionic responses were evaluated. Salinity stress significantly reduced plant height, biomass, leaf area, photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll content, and PSII efficiency, with the strongest inhibitory effects observed at 200 mM NaCl. Salinity also increased oxidative damage, as indicated by higher malondialdehyde (MDA) content, promoted proline accumulation associated with osmotic adjustment, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, and disrupted ionic homeostasis through excessive Na⁺ accumulation and reduced K⁺/Na⁺ ratio. Si application markedly alleviated these adverse effects by improving growth, maintaining photosynthetic efficiency and chlorophyll stability, enhancing antioxidant defense, promoting osmotic adjustment, and regulating ion balance through reduced Na⁺ accumulation and improved K⁺ retention. These findings demonstrate that Si enhances salinity tolerance through coordinated regulation of physiological, biochemical, and ionic mechanisms. The study provides a mechanistic framework for understanding Si-mediated salinity tolerance in perennial forage grasses and highlights the potential application of Si for improving forage productivity under saline conditions.
Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) is increasingly prevalent in rice production worldwide resulting from frequent extreme weather events, which severely reduces grain yield and quality. This review summarizes the external triggers, structural and physiological basis, associated quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and genes, and molecular regulatory mechanisms, and provides an outlook for future research of rice PHS. High temperature and high humidity are the core environmental factors inducing rice PHS. The structural and physiological prerequisites for its occurrence include the structure of the panicle and seed coat, grain maturity, and moisture content. Sugar and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are key signaling molecules, interacting with hormones to trigger germination. More than 200 QTLs associated with rice PHS have been mapped and some critical QTL/genes, such as Sdr1, OsMFT2, GF14h, and OsNCED3, have been cloned, which centered on the synthesis, metabolism, and signal transduction of abscisic acid–gibberellin antagonism, with transcriptional, and epigenetic level as well. This network integrates endogenous signals such as sugar, ROS, and calcium, and exogenous signals such as temperature, to establish a synergistic “hormone–transcription factor–epigenetic effector” regulatory system. In the future, it is necessary to establish a precise and standardized phenotypic screening system, identify new crucial QTLs/genes and molecular modules conferring resistance to PHS in rice, and apply modern biotechnologies, such as gene editing, for genetic improvement of PHS resistance in rice variety.
Soybean is the most widely grown legume species in the world. Nevertheless, the influence of irrigation on the morphological traits associated with grain productivity is not fully understood. In a field experiment, we investigated the effects of irrigation during the vegetative and flowering periods on the root system, canopy structure, grain yield, grain yield components, and grain quality of the soybean cultivar Gallec (MG000, Agroscope), as well as the relationship between these traits. Plants were collected to analyse root systems at R3–R4, biomass allocation within the canopy was analysed at R3–R4, R6–R7, and R7–R8, and the grain yield and grain protein were quantified. Irrigation augmented thousand kernel weight, grain per m2 and grain protein content and modulated biomass allocation within the canopy and root systems. It also caused a delay in the developmental stages and increased the nodule number and biomass. Different relationships between canopy traits and root traits were observed for rain-fed and irrigated treatments. This suggests that irrigation before pod maturation can sufficiently drive morphological adaptations that could subsequently increase soybean productivity until harvest. Root system adaptation is crucial for optimizing soybean performance following irrigation and should be investigated in future plant breeding or variety evaluation studies.
Sugars, the core products of plant primary metabolism, not only serve as energy sources and carbon skeleton, but also act as key signaling molecules that regulate multiple aspects of plant growth, development, and stress responses. Global climate change has intensified abiotic stresses including drought, extreme temperatures, salinity, and hypoxia, making the elucidation of sugar-mediated stress tolerance mechanisms critical for sustainable agriculture. Under these stresses, plants reprogram sugar metabolism and signaling networks to maintain energy homeostasis, activate stress responses, and balance growth with stress adaptation. Here, we summarize the core properties of sugars as both nutrients and signaling molecules, and systematically elaborate their specific functions and underlying molecular mechanisms in plant abiotic stress responses. We discuss critical knowledge gaps in sugar-mediated abiotic stress signaling. We aim to provide a theoretical basis for in-depth mechanistic dissection of sugar-mediated plant abiotic stress tolerance, and practical guidance for the molecular breeding of abiotic stress-tolerant crop varieties.
The transcriptional responses of plants to high light (HL) are dynamic and specific, varying with exposure duration, growth stage, and tissue type. However, the mechanisms linking transcriptomic and physiological responses in tomato leaves (source) and fruits (sink) remain relatively unknown. Here, transcriptome profiling of tomato fruit tissue and leaf mesophyll cell protoplasts (MCP) identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in the metabolic and signaling pathways under HL. Gene and pathway enrichment analyses revealed distinct strategies: we observed reprogramming of primary metabolism and N-glycan biosynthesis in fruits, while flavonoid and terpenoid pathways were activated in leaf MCP. Furthermore, cell wall metabolism-associated genes associated with ascorbic acid accumulation were markedly regulated under HL, which may facilitate reactive oxygen species detoxification, contribute to the softening of fruit texture, and consequently influence overall tomato fruit quality. These DEGs included GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase (SlGGP), ascorbate peroxidases (SlAPXs), ripening inhibitor, a MADS-box transcription factor (SlRIN), and abscisic acid stress ripening 1 (SlASR1). Moreover, HL-triggered molecular regulation in MCP is closely linked to tomato fruit quality traits, through the coordinated expression of both common and specific DEGs such as Small Auxin Up RNA 1 (SAUR1) and Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PLA). Furthermore, the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed that distinct gene modules were significantly correlated with key fruit quality traits in HL compared to the control. These findings suggest that light intensity-dependent transcriptional reprogramming of metabolic and signaling networks contributes to HL acclimation of tomato fruit quality in greenhouse conditions.
Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) has emerged as an important multifunctional molecule in vegetable crops due to its diverse roles in plant growth, development, stress tolerance, and postharvest preservation. Recent studies have demonstrated that melatonin regulates a wide range of physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes, including seed germination, root development, photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, flowering, and yield enhancement. Its strong antioxidant potential enables efficient scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby protecting plants against oxidative damage caused by abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, temperature extremes, and heavy metal toxicity. Melatonin also interacts with major phytohormones, including auxins, abscisic acid, gibberellins, ethylene, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid, contributing to coordinated regulation of plant growth and stress responses. In addition, melatonin enhances resistance against fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens through activation of defence-related genes and antioxidant systems. Beyond stress mitigation, melatonin improves postharvest quality by delaying senescence, maintaining membrane stability, preserving chlorophyll content, and extending shelf life in highly perishable vegetables. This review comprehensively summarizes current knowledge on melatonin biosynthesis, distribution, mechanisms of action, physiological functions, and its role in biotic and abiotic stress management in vegetable crops. Furthermore, the review highlights recent advances, practical applications, and existing research gaps associated with melatonin use in sustainable vegetable production systems. Overall, melatonin represents a promising eco-friendly strategy for enhancing vegetable productivity, quality, and resilience under changing environmental conditions.
High planting density helps maintain soybean productivity in double-cropping systems but often causes excessive stem elongation, poor canopy light distribution, and severe lodging. A three-year field experiment was conducted from 2023 to 2025 to evaluate the agronomic, physiological, and biochemical responses of high-density post-wheat soybean to mepiquat chloride-based regulators. Four treatments were compared: water control, 375 g ha⁻¹ mepiquat chloride alone (MC) ; 375 g ha⁻¹ MC + 150 g ha⁻¹ prohexadione-calcium (MCD); and 375 g ha⁻¹ MC + 150 g ha⁻¹ prohexadione-calcium + 150 g ha⁻¹ thidiazuron (MCT). Among these treatments, MCT was identified as the most beneficial formulation for yield improvement, increasing seed yield by 13.8
Ensuring global food security hinges on increasing rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield, and grain-filling is a primary determinant of key yield components such as grain size and weight. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), encoded by the PCK gene (LOC_Os03g15050), has been identified in C3 plants including rice, however, its biological roles and regulatory networks remain poorly understood in the absence of a complete C4 photosynthetic apparatus. As a pivotal enzyme in gluconeogenesis, PEPCK may be intimately involved in carbon partitioning and the mobilization of photosynthetic products during grain filling. To investigate the functional mechanism of OsPCK1 (a transcript of rice PCK) Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica Nipponbare (wild type, WT), the OsPCK1 knockout mutant (ospck1), and overexpression lines (OX10, OX15) were employed as experimental materials. Through integrated phenotypic characterization, physiological measurements, and molecular analyses, we demonstrated that OsPCK1 positively regulated the expression of genes controlling panicle architecture and grain morphology. Additionally, OsPCK1 may play a role in facilitating the translocation of photoassimilates to reproductive organs, by upregulating key genes associated with sugar transport (OsSUTs, OsSWEETs) and starch biosynthesis (OsAGPS1, OsAGPL1), thereby improving yield-related traits. Conversely, the loss of OsPCK1 function resulted in significant downregulation of these genes, leading to compromised panicle fertility with reduced grain number and decreased 1000-grain weight. Our results suggest that OsPCK1 may regulate carbon allocation by concurrently influencing photosynthetic carbon assimilation and starch accumulation in grains, thereby contributing to sugar transport and starch biosynthesis during grain filling. These findings offer new insights into PEPCK function in C3 plants and may provide a reference for future strategies aimed at increasing rice yield by optimizing carbon allocation.
DELLA proteins are central repressors of gibberellin (GA) signaling in plants. In Arabidopsis and rice, gain- and loss-of-function mutations in DELLA genes confer semidwarf and slender phenotypes, respectively. However, studies in Arabidopsis and tomato have suggested that a subset of GA responses can be mediated through DELLA-independent pathways. To date, no loss-of-function DELLA mutant has been characterized in maize. Here, we report the identification of a novel dominant maize DELLA mutant, D8-3, which exhibits a dwarf phenotype associated with reduced cell elongation. We show that an E602K amino acid substitution in the C-terminal GRAS domain markedly increases D8 protein stability. To investigate DELLA function in maize, we generate single and double loss-of-function mutants of the two maize DELLA homologs using genome editing. In contrast to observations in rice, disruption of DELLA function does not result in a slender growth phenotype in maize. Transcriptome analyses further reveal that expansin genes, which were strongly induced in the rice slender rice1 (slr1) mutant, are not significantly upregulated in maize DELLA loss-of-function mutants. Together, our findings uncover both conserved and maize-specific mechanisms governing DELLA regulation and function, providing new insights into the diversification of GA signaling pathways in plants.
The global escalation of antimicrobial resistance and contaminants of emerging concern threatens the integrity of the soil-plant continuum, necessitating a shift toward biologically driven, climate-resilient agriculture. This review evaluates the Nano–Phyto–Micro Triad as a disruptive Nature-Based Solution for rhizosphere engineering, specifically designed to optimize the functional dynamics of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria. Moving beyond descriptive taxonomic profiling, we critically analyze the systems-level interactions between engineered nanocarriers (chitosan/silica), functionalized biochar, and microbial signaling pathways that modulate plant physiological responses. We detail the biochemical mechanisms of pollutant biotransformation (e.g., per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and microplastics) and their direct impact on restoring nutrient bioavailability and phytohormonal balance (auxins, gibberellins, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate-deaminase activity). By integrating high-resolution diagnostics, such as H₂¹⁸O-Stable Isotope Probing, we provide functional insights into active microbial pools that drive both soil resistome attenuation and enhanced biomass production. Furthermore, we explore the integration of nanotechnology and biosensors to improve the predictability of microbial inoculants in fluctuating field conditions. This review offers a technical roadmap for transitioning to a circular bioeconomy, aligning microbial innovation with the “One Health” vision to safeguard crop productivity, food security, and ecosystem resilience within the framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
Soil salinization is one of the important abiotic stresses that limit rice yield, and salt tolerance in rice is often attributed to the magnitude of transcriptional responses. Here, we demonstrate that the tolerant landrace rice Pokkali (ssp.: indica) and the sensitive cultivar 9311 (ssp.: indica) deploy fundamentally different molecular strategies under salinity stress at the seedling stage via comparative transcriptomics. Compared to the 9311 seedling under stress, the Pokkali maintained higher survival, sustained growth, with minimal oxidative damage, indicating markedly superior physiological resilience. RNA-seq analysis showed that there was widespread genotype-dependent transcriptional reprogramming in these two genotypes, with 18,329 and 18,761 DEGs, respectively. The 9311 genotype retained a small conserved core of 1,227 genes, whereas the tolerant Pokkali did 10,599 genes, indicating greater regulatory stability. Only 134 DEG genes were shared by these two genotypes, suggesting a limited but robust universal stress-responsive core, indicating extensive transcriptional specialization. Pokkali preferentially activated a chloroplast-centered protective network involving LOC_Os02g01340 (petH) and LOC_Os01g22010 (metK), accompanied by coordinated enrichment of phenylpropanoid, glutathione, flavonoid, lipid, and photosynthesis-related pathways that collectively reinforce redox buffering, membrane stabilization, and metabolic homeostasis. In contrast, 9311 had a translation-centered stress program that activated LOC_Os03g04590 (RPL23e) and stopped chloroplast biogenesis through LOC_Os03g20700 (chlH). The results showed salt-sensitive rice verities under stress can trigger a response that prioritizes making more proteins (via enhanced translation machinery, highlighted by RPL23e), but at the cost of halting the production and development of chloroplasts (via suppression involving chlH). qRT-PCR and haplotype analysis across the 3 K Rice Genome panel showed that these different regulatory adaptive mechanisms are genetically controlled and not just temporary transcriptional plasticity. Our work maps out how rice copes with salt at the molecular level and points to practical ways breeders and genetic engineers can create more salt-resilient rice varieties to improve food security in saline areas.
