Most angiosperm flowers and vegetative shoots of land plants have an acropetal sequence of organ initiation, namely, the more proximal the organ position, the earlier its primordium appears in ontogeny. This is apparently the ancestral condition for angiosperm flowers. An acropetal sequence is the only way in which pre-patterning of organs along a spiral can be established and the only documented sequence of visible organ initiation in spiral flowers. This constraint is absent for whorled flowers, in contrast to whorled vegetative shoots. Non-acropetal developmental sequences are known from both species-rich angiosperm clades with flowers that are predominantly (eudicots) or exclusively whorled (monocots). Deviations from a strict acropetal pattern can be interpreted as sequence heterochronies, related to early termination of the floral meristem and subsequent fractionation of the floral apex into organ primordia. Monocots provide a useful opportunity to generate a large-scale comparative analysis of sequence heterochronies in floral evolution. We recognize several patterns of heterochronic shifts in monocot flowers. An ‘external’ pattern is related to the influence of extrafloral structures such as a flower-subtending bract, creating a delay in initiation of outer whorl organ(s) in the abaxial sector. All ‘internal’ patterns lack any obvious external influence; they include: (1) basipetal organ initiation in wind- and water-pollinated flowers, associated with overall perianth reduction; (2) basipetal organ initiation in secondarily multistaminate androecia (some palms and some Alismataceae) and secondarily multicarpellate gynoecia (some Triuridaceae); (3) non-acropetal patterns associated with common primordia, mostly tepal-stamen (occasional instances in six monocot orders); (4) simultaneous initiation of two neighbouring whorls lacking common primordia (some Alismatales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Poales). We propose a typification of common primordia, recognizing tangential and radial types, the latter being either bilobed or entire at the earliest stages. The following hypothesis is testable, but yet untested: at least the entire type is related to the development of two organs from the same prepatterning site. The most important tendencies distinguishing monocots from eudicots are the more frequent occurrence of common primordia, their presence in some epigynous flowers, the scarcity of polymerous androecia with centrifugal development, the apparent absence of complex polyandry, and polyandry associated with a hypanthium. Some monocots have flowers with multicarpellate gynoecia and at the same time oligostaminate androecia, a pattern that is rare in eudicots.
Fabaceae (Leguminosae) is one of the most species-rich and ecologically important angiosperm families, encompassing extraordinary diversity in growth form, floral architecture, fruit morphology, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Despite the central role of MADS-box transcription factors in controlling key developmental processes underlying these traits, their evolutionary history in legumes remains poorly understood. Here, we present a comprehensive phylogenetic and comparative genomic analysis of MIKCc MADS-box genes across Fabaceae, sampling representatives from three of the six subfamilies and spanning major evolutionary lineages using genomic and transcriptomic data. Our analyses reveal that all type II MIKCc MADS-box gene lineages known from angiosperms are represented in Fabaceae, except for TDR8 homologs. However, several clades, including MAF/FLC, AGL16/17/ANR1, ABS, and XAL1, are consistently poorly represented, suggesting lineage-specific constraints or gene loss. While numerous MADS-box genes remain single copy across most legumes, others show duplications prior to the diversification of Fabaceae, including AGL6, AGL24b, PI, SEP, and SOC1. Subfamily-specific expansions were detected in key developmental regulators, with duplications of AGL14/19-like, FUL, TM6, and SOC1 in Caesalpinioideae, and AG, AGL6, AGL79, AP1, FUL, and SEP lineages in Papilionoideae. These patterns coincide with documented whole-genome duplication events in both subfamilies. In addition, pervasive gene duplication in Glycine reflects a genus-specific polyploidization history. Together, these results suggest that differential retention and loss of duplicated MADS-box genes have played a central role in shaping floral and inflorescence diversity, phenological variation, and ecological adaptation in legumes. By integrating phylogenetic patterns with existing functional data, this study provides an evolutionary framework for understanding how MADS-box gene diversification has contributed to the remarkable developmental and adaptive radiation of Fabaceae.
The Caatinga harbors the largest continuous expanse of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests and Woodlands (SDTFW) in South America, characterized by a highly diverse flora and a significant number of endemic species. In this study, we compiled data on species distribution within the Caatinga by gathering information from 112 peer-reviewed floristic and phytosociological studies published up to December 2020. We characterized this database by identifying woody and non-woody species, checking their International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List status, highlighting the families represented by most species, and analyzing species distribution across Neotropical biomes, biogeographical districts, and Holdridge life zones. Our database includes 1,775 taxa identified at the species level (conservative richness), while the total estimated richness was 2,978 species, including unidentified specimens. However, our analysis revealed that the proportion of unidentified taxa in Caatinga studies decreased from 27.10
Incorporation of evolutionary theory into experimental investigations of natural populations was important to the development of plant ecology. We review the prominent role grasses (Poaceae) have played in this historical development. Beginning in the 1920s, the ecotype concept prompted researchers to investigate genetically based differentiation in agronomically important forage grasses using common gardens, first in relation to climatological and biotic factors (grazing and competition), and later in relation to latitude and elevation at collection sites. Adaptive variation was documented for populations in relation to edaphic factors such as soil nutrients and moisture, salinity, serpentine conditions, and heavy metals. Molecular analyses using allozyme and DNA markers show selection favors specific genetic loci in grass populations from different habitats or under changing climatic conditions. Consistent with theoretical expectations for breeding-system effects on genetic structure, highly outcrossing grass species show lower molecular variation among populations and greater variation within populations. In contrast, highly selfing grasses show more genetic variation partitioned among populations and correspndingly reduced variation within populations. Progress has been made in identifying quantitative trait loci important to genetic differentiation in phenotypic traits. Biotic factors such as herbivory, competition and microbial symbionts can act as agents of natural selection and adaptation in grass species. Despite inconsistencies in usage, “ecotype” persists in the literature, but the term has value as evidenced by recent adaptation studies in the Poaceae. Applications of the ecotype concept include reclamation and phytoremediation of sites polluted by metalliferous wastes, restoration of habitats, evolutionary responses to a changing climate, and adaptation of weedy and invasive species.
Plant organ bending is a fundamental growth response shaped by hormonal regulation, cytoskeletal dynamics, and differential cell expansion. While widely explored in vegetative organs, similar processes drive the movement of reproductive structures, where functional outcomes directly influence pollination and reproductive success. Pistil movement, in particular, plays a central role in promoting outcrossing, regulating pollen deposition, and achieving spatial separation of sexual functions. This review synthesizes current understanding of the mechanisms and ecological significance of pistil bending, drawing on case studies from families such as Malvaceae, Passifloraceae, Zingiberaceae etc. The diversity of pistil movements is shown to correspond with pollinator behavior and habitat predictability, highlighting pistil motility as a finely tuned reproductive strategy. Finally, we outline key knowledge gaps, particularly regarding the cellular drivers of pistil motility and the genetic networks underlying its diversity, and propose future directions that integrate physiology, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Together, these perspectives underscore pistil movement as a model trait at the interface of plant development and reproductive ecology.
This study integrates and updates the ethnobotanical knowledge of Asteraceae in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico. A comprehensive literature review was conducted, complemented by descriptive methods such as interaction networks and use value indices, to assess the associations between species and their uses, as well as ecological and distributional aspects. A total of 126 Asteraceae taxa with ethnobotanical uses were identified, of which 84 are native (including 12 endemic). Thirteen categories of use were documented, with melliferous (86 species) and medicinal (66 species) being the most prominent. Ecologically, in the region the majority of Asteraceae species are herbaceous (68.8
Fern hybrids, a remarkable proportion of which are sterile, provide the basis for hypotheses for species-level divergence between hybrid progenitors using the biological species criterion. Thus, these hybrids can be used to distinguish taxa in complex arrays of understudied and cryptic species. Qualitative morphological features such as anomalies in spore shape, size, and color have often been used to infer sterility as part of identifying fern hybrids. To establish a protocol for quantitative distinction of species and hybrids using spore variation in size and shape, we used spore length and width data originating from an array of 30 genetically profiled specimens of species and 11 of hybrids in the fern genus Polystichum. To assess the possibility of inferring working hypotheses for circumscriptions of species and hybrids using the quantitative data alone, we used a separate set of spore length and width data from a set of 17 type specimens of Polystichum, all without genetic profile. Using the genetically profiled plants, we found that the best quantitative representations of spore variation for distinguishing hybrids from species were coefficients of variation for length and shape (= length/width). These statistics yielded hypotheses for hybrids and species in the type-specimen dataset. The approach developed here is likely to be useful for testing hypotheses for species and hybrids across the ferns, notably in complex arrays including cryptic species, using the biological-species criterion.
The Espinhaço Range (ER), in east Brazil, encompasses a unique biodiversity in a heterogeneous landscape, composed by a mosaic of vegetation classes including campos rupestres, cerrados and forests. Considering the ecological relevance of Myrtaceae and its diversity in these landscapes, we rendered a comprehensive floristic survey of Myrtaceae composition, distribution, and sampling in the ER; we tested if geomorphological structures accurately reflect floristic patterns; and investigated which large-scale environmental variables are correlated to species turnover within its different vegetation classes. Herbarium data were compiled into a comprehensive database, and the floristic patterns were investigated using NMDS and UPGMA. A GDM was used to identify environmental drivers of species turnover. We found 17 genera and 277 Myrtaceae species, of which 53 spp. are new occurrences, and 42 spp. are endemic to the ER. Sampling and diversity were concentrated in the Espinhaço Meridional, Chapada Diamantina and Quadrilátero Ferrífero. We found a higher number of species that are habitat generalists than documented by previous studies. Forests presented the highest richness and the highest number of exclusive species. Caatinga comprehended the lowest richness and the most profound subsampling across different vegetation classes. A latitudinal and longitudinal pattern of floristic similarity was observed; and geomorphological units constituted a fair representation of these patterns. The GDM models were congruent, indicating a mostly edaphically driven species turnover of Myrtaceae across every vegetation class, especially associated with soil texture and geographical distance – constituting the first record of mostly edaphic-driven beta diversity turnover in the Espinhaço Range.
Cycas, the only surviving genus of the Cycadaceae family, is globally threatened, with most species listed as endangered and threatened on the IUCN Red List (Calonje et al., 2025). Despite their ancient lineage, cycads have shown adaptability and resilience through multiple mass extinction events, making Cycas a crucial genus for studies. Cycads exhibit dioecious habits with separate male and female plants; however, due to morphological similarity, male and female plants could be differentiated only after reaching reproductive maturity, which is often attained after 10–12 years. The study of sex chromosomes in Cycas revealed variation in the sex determination pattern in different species of Cycas, including homomorphic, heteromorphic with identical chromosomes except for a satellite, and heteromorphic with a larger X and a smaller Y chromosome. Dioecy is a conserved phenomenon in Cycas however apart from the XY system of sex determination the impact environment in sex determination (epigenetic) and sex reversal could not be denied. The evolutionary dynamics of sex chromosomes in Cycas could provide valuable insights into the forces driving differential patterns of sex chromosomes in Cycas and their role in shaping the survival of cycads over millions of years, also contributing to the strategic planning of conservation efforts in the genus Cycas.
Biodiversity loss is a significant global challenge, driven by human activities. In this sense, regional and updated Red Lists are essential to document threatened species and guide efficient management. This study aimed to review the threatened plant species list in the state of Paraná, Brazil, contributing to conservation planning and public awareness of plant diversity in the region. We compiled a list of threatened species occurring in the state, from the CNCFlora official evaluation based on IUCN guidelines, as well as their growth form and geographic distribution. A careful taxonomic evaluation was also performed based on herbaria databases, to update putative synonymous and to verify occurrence. After that, we compared our verified species list with the official state’s Red List, lastly reviewed in (CNCFlora 2014). We mapped the species occurrences and analyzed the distribution of collections over time. We found 300 threatened species across 79 botanical families, adding 160 species to the previously available state's Red List. Moreover, 13 species from the previous Red List had no verifiable occurrences or threat category in the state, based on both herbaria collections and scientific literature. Herbaceous species are prevalent within the threatened species, followed by arboreal and shrub species. The distribution of threatened species is not uniform across the state’s area, with clusters in urban areas. This study highlights gaps in knowledge and emphasizes the importance of ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to safeguard biodiversity.
Lamiaceae is an economically significant angiosperm family renowned for its diverse array of spices, medicinal herbs, vegetables, and ornamental plants. Traditionally, Lamiaceae has been recognized as a distinctive “natural” group closely related to Verbenaceae. However, advancements in research across morphology, anatomy, and molecular systematics have significantly redefined the boundaries between these two families. This has resulted in a large-scale reorganization, with nearly two-thirds of Verbenaceae genera being transferred to Lamiaceae. Currently, Lamiaceae encompasses 226 genera and over 8,000 species, making it the sixth-largest family of angiosperms. Based on recent molecular phylogenetic analyses, the family has been subdivided into 12 subfamilies and 22 tribes. In China, Lamiaceae is extensively documented in Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS) and Flora of China (FOC), with more than 90 genera and 800 species recorded. This establishes China as one of the seven global centers for the distribution and diversification of Lamiaceae. However, there is a notable gap between these floristic records and research advances on the familial boundary, classification, and generic delimitation of Lamiaceae. To address this gap, this paper reviews the taxonomic history of Lamiaceae, introduces its updated classification, and provides a comprehensive update of the family in China. This includes revised taxonomic keys at subfamilial, tribal, and generic levels, along with detailed synopses for each genus incorporating morphological, geographical, and specific information. To date, China comprises 100 Lamiaceae genera with more than 1,020 species, distributed across 11 subfamilies and 19 tribes. Compared to FOC, 25 genera have been treated as synonyms, while an additional 28 genera are now included. Among these, 13 genera were transferred from Verbenaceae and 15 genera were reinstated, newly established or recorded. This paper serves as a contemporary taxonomic reference for further research on Chinese Lamiaceae plants, facilitating alignment with international studies.
The study of bark morphology reveals significant although not absolute relationships between bark types, tree species, and their environmental conditions. This paper aims to review the inter- and intraspecific ecological and evolutionary drivers that seem to have shaped the macromorphological features of bark, especially in temperate forest ecosystems and especially in Europe. Extensive literature research shows that various factors influence bark thickness, structure, color, and morphology, including solar radiation, climate, adaptation to various disturbance regimes, site conditions and biotic factors, reflecting together long-term selective pressures during evolution. Bark’s simultaneous multiple functions and its ontogenetic changes often complicate the identification of the individual selective agents of the adaptive mechanisms and morphologies. An evolutionary perspective can clarify why certain bark types are common in specific environments, how some traits persist as secondary functions, or why diverse bark forms coexist not only in the same site, but also in various ontogenetic stages and positions of the same individuals. Intraspecific variation shaped by both genetic and environmental influences often results in phenotypic plasticity, enhancing species’ environmental and age/size related adaptability. We suggest that further research examine current and historical climate, site, and biotic conditions to understand their influence on bark structure and morphology.
Leguminosae comprises approximately 19,325 species in 727 genera, organized into six subfamilies. Its occurrence is notable in all Brazilian phytogeographic domains, which integrates the third largest angiosperm family and the second in economic importance. Species of Leguminosae present several secretory structures that are used as taxonomic markers and exudated considered important for ecological interactions. This study aimed to review the types of secretory structures, distribution, and chemical composition of the secretions of Caesalpinioideae (including the Mimosoid clade), Cercidoideae, and Detarioideae subfamilies of Brazilian genera, as well as to evaluate the circumscription of the Mimosoid clade within the subfamily Caesalpinioideae based on these structures. A review was performed by compiling information from specialized journals and repositories of articles, dissertations and theses related to different secretory structures in the three subfamilies. Secretory structures were found in 242 species — 224 from Caesalpinioideae, 7 from Cercidoideae, and 11 from Detarioideae. Extrafloral nectaries predominated in 177 species, followed by colleters in 54 species, idioblasts in 15 and secretory cavities in eight of them. Caesalpinioideae shows primary metabolites associated with secretory structures, which enhance mutualistic interactions. The mucilage present in colleters protects the shoot apex against desiccation. The terpenoid and flavonoid classes are mostly produced by these distinct secretory structures in Cercidoideae and Detarioideae. Of the secretory structures found, a predominance of extrafloral nectaries was observed in both the Mimosoid clade and among the studied Caesalpinioideae genera. This study supports the circumscription of the Mimosoid clade and offers important information for future systematic and evolutionary studies within Leguminosae.
Despite increasing research on invasive alien plants (IAPs) in the Republic of Korea (ROK), we lack a synthesis of their spread, impacts, and management. We reviewed 117 peer-reviewed studies published between 1990 and 2025 to synthesize evidence on the spread, impact, and management of 17 IAPs prioritized for ROK’s national environmental policy and one native species exhibiting invasive behavior. The study reveals that 50
Movement promotes organismal survival. To move, one needs to interact with the environment—detect light (sight), sense surfaces (touch), recognize chemicals (taste), and distinguish sounds (hearing). Therefore, environmental sensing is critical for life. Due to their sessile nature, plants have developed alternative ways to explore the world using growth and/or shape changes of their organs. The main drivers of such exploration are meristems, the continuously dividing tips of the plant body, and elastic, modular plant cell walls. These mechanisms enable plants to adapt to their surroundings by modifying growth patterns and responding to environmental cues. Tropisms, the key mechanisms by which plants sense their environment and adjust growth direction, have been broadly studied. Plants rely on a complex interplay of hormonal signaling, gene expression, and cellular processes to perceive and respond to various stimuli. Key hormones such as auxins, cytokinins, and ethylene play crucial roles in regulating these responses. Additionally, specialized cells and structures, such as statocytes and statoliths, contribute to the plant’s ability to detect and react to changes in their environment. This review focuses on gravi-, hydro- and chemotropism, with particular emphasis on nutritropism - the directional growth response to gradients of essential micro- and macro-elements. Understanding how plants perceive and respond to uneven distributions of water and nutrients in the soil could inform strategies to enhance biofortification, improve root adaptation to changing moisture conditions under climate stress, and promote more efficient and sustainable fertilization practices. By integrating recent insights into how roots sense environmental cues, coordinate hormonal signaling, and adapt their architecture, we underscore the potential of tropism research to advance crop improvement and sustainable resource use.
Ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes, plays a central role in plant-fungi interactions. Structurally analogous to cholesterol in animal cells, it stabilizes fungal membranes, influencing fluidity and permeability. This unique sterol has evolutionary significance, marking a distinct separation between fungal and plant lineages, and has been pivotal in fungal adaptation to diverse ecological niches. Ergosterol acts as a signalling molecule in plant-fungi associations, impacting the establishment of symbiotic relationships. From a physiological perspective, ergosterol is critical for modulating plant responses such as photosynthesis or altering mitochondrial membrane fluidity. However, research on the effects of ergosterol on other aspects of plant physiology remains underlooked, highlighting a significant gap. Moreover, ergosterol biosynthesis is targeted by antifungal compounds, underscoring its importance in the development of fungal biocontrol strategies. The specialized role of ergosterol in fungal physiology and its association with plants is dynamic for plant-fungal relationship. This review highlights the potential role of ergosterol in plant-fungal interactions.
The sessile nature of plants forces them to coexist with and adapt to both biotic and abiotic factors present around them for survival. Recent findings indicate that plants communicate with their neighbours, which is important for their survival and reproduction. Even though they are known to respond to environmental cues and mechanical stimulations like gravity, light, water, temperature, pressure, and touch, a response to another plant’s signal is inconspicuous. Research on plant communication has revealed many ways plants communicate with themselves and even with members of different kingdoms. Plants exposed to biotic or abiotic stresses emit signals that are perceived by neighboring, unstressed plants, thereby triggering defense responses comparable to those induced in the originally challenged individuals. The signals developed in response to an encounter include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), electrical signals, proteins, peptides, amino acids, microRNAs, hormones, and acoustic signals. Major adaptive responses are reported in plants at the genome level due to the intra- and inter-kingdom communication of plants. While several recent reviews focus extensively on specific topics such as VOC-mediated or mycorrhiza-mediated interactions, other equally important aspects relevant to plant communication have been insignificantly represented. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of all known mechanisms through which plants interact with their surroundings. Special emphasis has been placed on highlighting topics that have received less attention in the literature, while offering detailed insights into already well-established areas. This article examines how plants perceive and transmit signals from their neighbors or surroundings and how they adjust their responses to adapt to these signals or target a second receiver to caution or influence them.
Climate change presents significant challenges to plant reproductive processes, influencing key stages such as flowering, pollen and ovule development, pollination, and seed formation. Extreme temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and other climate-induced stressors disrupt these processes with varying impacts across species and ecosystems. These disruptions threaten food security and ecosystem services, necessitating a deeper understanding of the plant reproductive responses to climate change. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the molecular and genetic mechanisms by which climate change affects plant reproduction, emphasizing the role of gene expression and stress-responsive pathways in enhancing reproductive tolerance. This highlights promising genomic-assisted breeding techniques, including CRISPR-based genome editing, as tools for developing climate-resilient crops. A critical challenge remains in understanding plant responses to combined stressors, such as drought and heat, and their long-term implications on reproductive success. Addressing these challenges requires a deeper exploration of key molecular pathways, such as gene expression and stress response mechanisms, and their roles in diverse ecosystems. Predictive modeling, coupled with collaboration among researchers, breeders, and policymakers, is crucial for integrating these advancements into sustainable agricultural practices and ensuring food security under changing climatic conditions.
