The textile industry of pre-colonial Punjab operated as a thriving, artisan-led economy anchored in hereditary skills, indigenous technologies, and regionally rooted production systems. Cities like Lahore, Amritsar, and Multan consolidated their reputations as major textile hubs, where skilled weavers produced khaddar, susi, jamawar, and other fabrics on traditional looms using natural fibers. British colonial rule disrupted this ecosystem by introducing industrial technologies and extractive economic policies that prioritized imperial interests. These interventions restructured Punjab’s textile economy, making it a supplier of raw materials and a market for British-manufactured goods. Colonial technologies displaced artisanal modes of production, undermined hereditary knowledge systems, and deskilled generations of craft-based labor. In doing so, they reconfigured labour relations and marginalized entire communities dependent on textile crafts. This paper argues that colonial technological change in Punjab’s textile sector was not an inevitable process of modernization, but a deliberate reordering of economic priorities that fractured local industries and erased long-standing cultural and economic practices. Through a historical analysis of textile production in both pre-colonial and colonial contexts, the study traces the far-reaching socio-economic consequences of these disruptive transformations.
Colonial medical journals have often been sources for reconstructing the history of medicine, particularly regarding public health and sanitation. However, their specific role in enhancing the imperial mission is less clear. This article on The Indian Medical Gazette explores how the imperial narrative permeated its contents and enhanced its role in furthering the imperial mission of the British in India. This journal was one of the most influential in mid-nineteenth-century colonial India, with editors and contributors mostly drawn from the Indian Medical Service, the most powerful body of doctors at the time of imperial consolidation. The Imperial mission, implicitly and explicitly, permeated the journal. While there was professional debate on aspects of medical science, the support for the imperial goals was never questioned and indeed highlighted. The journal went to great lengths to justify the key role of the ‘medical man’ in building and consolidating the Empire. This article shows how a general medical journal, primarily a vehicle for propagating the latest research and views on professional knowledge and practice, could internalize and propagate the imperial mission in colonial times. Primary professional journal sources convey an immediacy in their narratives, which is useful for capturing the spirit of the times.
Assam had a long tradition of woodcarving, involving painting the carvings with mineral pigments and herbal dyes, popularly known as Hengul-Hāitāl painting, in a way that protects the wood from termites, fungus, and humidity, while imparting exquisite, lasting colors to the carvings. Due to the widespread use of synthetic paints, this cultural practice is almost disappearing. However, there are hundreds of centuries-old woodcarvings of various Vaishnavite deities and utility items of various kinds in Vaishnavite institutions such as Satras and Namghars, as well as in individual possessions. These heritage woodcarvings are now being damaged due to natural wear and tear in the harsh climatic conditions of Assam. Here we present a study, including piloting, of a proposed scientific method for the restoration of such woodcarvings, based on the traditional method of their preparation. It has been shown that the present scientific restoration method, involving mending, primer coating, repainting with Hengul-Hāitāl pigments, and finally varnishing in traditional ways, allows the restored woodcarvings to be preserved in ordinary rural settings of Namghars and Satras. The study also revealed interesting traditional knowledge in the woodcarving culture of traditional painting.
Metal and metallic objects have played a crucial role in the material culture of societies across time and space. In Assam, metals have long served as essential materials for the production of a wide range of artistic, utilitarian and domestic objects. These artefacts have been crafted from materials such as iron, bronze, brass, copper, gold, and silver, reflecting both technological skill and cultural expression. Among these, iron holds particular archaeological and cultural significance due to its extensive use in construction, ritual practices and everyday life. Historical sources, especially the Tai Ahom chronicles known as the Buranjis, refer to highly skilled artisans proficient in working with multiple metals, indicating a well-developed metallurgical tradition in pre-colonial Assam. This project aims to document and analyse metal artefacts of historical importance currently preserved in museums, academic institutions, government departments and private collections. It further seeks to examine the significance of metal in pre-colonial Assam through a critical study of historical texts. Particular emphasis is placed on pyro-technology as reflected in the Buranjis, highlighting indigenous knowledge systems and technological practices. Adopting a multidisciplinary approach that integrates textual analysis and material culture studies, the research endeavours to reconstruct metallurgical practices, tools and the socio-political roles of metals in the region.
Prof. Puran Singh (1881–1931), India’s inaugural forest chemist, significantly advanced the extraction and commercialisation of essential oils at the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. He pioneered the cultivation of Palmarosa grass and introduced steam distillation techniques, producing substantial quantities of essential oils, thereby establishing a foundation for India’s essential oils industry. His notable innovations in sandalwood, eucalyptus, and turpentine oils garnered international recognition for their exceptional quality. Puran Singh’s scientific rigour, demonstrated through journal publications and peer praise, exemplifies his ability to translate laboratory research into industrial applications within colonial constraints. Beyond his scientific achievements, he critiqued colonial governance in his research, advocating for autonomy and stronger industry-education links, as expressed in his testimony to the Indian Industrial Commission. This paper explores Puran Singh’s legacy in research and literature, highlighting his challenge to colonial norms and his contributions to the development of indigenous science. His perspectives on institutional autonomy remain relevant to contemporary debates on STEM education and industrial research in India.
Kala-azar, or visceral leishmaniasis, has long posed a formidable public health challenge in India, with its historical roots tracing back to devastating epidemics in the 19th and 20th centuries. Caused by Leishmania donovani and transmitted by the sand fly Phlebotomus argentipes, the disease primarily afflicted the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh. This paper offers a comprehensive historical narrative, from early misidentifications and colonial-era outbreaks to groundbreaking discoveries that identified the parasite and its vector. Key milestones included the discovery of L. donovani by William Boog Leishman (1865–1926) and Charles Donovan (1863–1951), the development of the breakthrough drug urea stibamine by Upendranath Brahmachari (1873–1946) in 1920, and the conclusive identification of the sand fly vector in 1942. Following a dramatic decline during the DDT campaigns of the 1950s under the National Malaria Eradication Programme, kala-azar resurged due to the discontinuation of vector control and the presence of untreated post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) cases. The establishment of the National Kala-azar Elimination Program in the 1990s, supported by WHO and the World Bank, led to a sharp decline in disease incidence through improved diagnostics (rK39), treatment (Miltefosine, liposomal amphotericin B), vector control (IRS, synthetic pyrethroids), and digital surveillance (KAMIS). By 2023, India met the WHO elimination target of less than one case per 10,000 people in all endemic blocks. Despite this progress, "last mile challenges" such as hotspot persistence, treatment delays, co-infections, operational fatigue, and socio-economic inequities remain. This review underscores the importance of sustained surveillance, targeted outreach, policy coordination, and community engagement to prevent resurgence and ensure sustained elimination. India’s journey from kala-azar being a colonial epidemic to its elimination exemplifies the convergence of scientific innovation, political will, and inclusive public health strategies in combating neglected tropical diseases.
Jungle Mahals, located in the south-western region of West Bengal, is home to a dense tribal population, including prominent groups such as the Santal, Kora, Bhumij, Munda, Mahali, and Lodha, as well as smaller communities like the Lohara, Shobor, Oraon, Khond, Karmali, Birhor, and Asur etc. Historically, the health practices of these tribes were largely self-reliant, grounded in indigenous knowledge systems. Throughout the twentieth century, these communities had minimal exposure to external health interventions, primarily due to a deep-rooted mistrust stemming from historical exploitation and marginalization. While the colonial government introduced limited health initiatives in Jungle Mahals, these efforts were largely ineffective in reaching the tribal population, reflecting broader imperial health policies across India. In contrast, Christian missionary organizations, particularly the American Baptist and Methodist Missionary Societies, played a pivotal role in introducing basic modern healthcare to remote tribal villages. Although their primary aim was religious conversion, their contributions to education and health provided the first significant exposure to Western medical practices in these communities. This paper explores the historical and cultural dynamics of health in the tribal-dominated Jungle Mahals region during the twentieth century. It examines the prevalence of physical and mental illnesses, evaluates colonial neglect in healthcare provision, and investigates how Christian missionary organizations contributed to the region’s medical transformation.
The present study examines the doctrines and historical stratification of Āyurveda Sūtram, a treatise by an anonymous author and edited by R Shamashastry. It consists of 16 chapters, with a detailed commentary by Yoganāthānanda up to the fifth chapter. The book is out of print, available, complete, and readable in Devanāgarī script with no translations. The text presents a distinctive synthesis of āyurveda, yoga, rasāyana, cakra theory, and medical astrology. Doctrinally, the treatise identifies āma as the primary cause of disease and gives significant importance to Graha influences and stellar astrology. The treatise synthesizes the principles of āyurveda, such as the three doṣas, seven dhātus, and six rasas, with concepts of yoga, including nidrā, samādhi, cakras, and nāḍis. It advances original concepts such as the gradation of tastes and their "cordiality", an alternative vipāka theory differing from that of the Caraka saṃhitā, and detailed correlations among varṇa (letters), anatomical loci, cakras, stars, deities, and diseases. Descriptions of the achievement of salvation through food, three types of vāyu, and puśpāyurveda are other important contributions of this book. Based on textual inconsistencies, repetitions of aphorisms, contradictory doctrinal positions, mismatched mnemonic "citta" structures, and abrupt chapter transitions, the paper proposes multiple authorship for the current book. The documentation of the book may have begun during the pre-Samhita period, when much significance was given to daiva vyāpāśraya cikitsā. Subsequent chapters deal with drugs, indicating the popularity of yukti vyāpaśraya cikitsā in later times. The study contributes to the historiography of āyurveda. The paper situates the text Ayurvedasūtram as a layered textual witness to early attempts to synthesize āyurveda and yoga.
The primary objective of this study was to explore and highlight the depth and richness of India’s traditional agricultural knowledge, with a specific focus on Vṛkṣāyurveda, an ancient saṃskṛta treatise on agriculture. The study aimed to understand how these age-old principles of agriculture, rooted in sustainable practices and ecological balance, continue to hold relevance in today’s context of environmental challenges and the search for sustainable farming solutions. The study included insights from contemporary scientific experiments and field trials that have tested and validated some of these ancient methods. Findings indicate that the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) in agriculture was focused on a comprehensive framework promoting biodiversity, resource conservation, and community health. Sustainable practices derived from Vṛkṣāyurveda have shown promising outcomes when integrated into modern organic and natural farming systems. The study concludes that traditional agricultural knowledge, especially as documented in Vṛkṣāyurveda, remains a valuable resource. Its integration into contemporary farming can foster sustainability, resilience, and ecological harmony.
The commentary tradition evolved worldwide due to the complexity of primary texts in different fields, including Ayurveda. The prime text, such as Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya (AH), has nearly 44 commentaries written by the great commentators Candranandana, Aruṇadatta, Indu, Śrīdāsapaṇḍita, and others. Among AH's commentaries, Hṛdayabodhikā (HB) was comprehensive even for readers with varying levels of textual training and incorporated the opinions of other commentators. This study focuses on a brief overview of HB commentary on AH. The objectives of this study are to gather preliminary information about the HB commentary, including its title, authorship, period, narrative style, and content. HB has two more title names, such as Hṛdayabodhini and Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayadīpikā. The author is Śrīdāsapaṇḍita; the period dates from the latter half of the thirteenth century to the first half of the fourteenth century. The Malayalam terms influenced by Tamil found in the HB support the historical origin of Malayalam from Tamil. The study concludes that HB contains rich content, including different citations, similes, and practical explanations. Altogether, the study of HB commentary can contribute to the history of ancient medicine in India and other historical research perspectives, such as the history of language, medicine, and others.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Roger Bacon were pivotal figures in the development of optical science during the Middle Ages. Ibn al-Haytham revolutionized visual theory in his seminal work Kitāb al-Manazir (The Book of Optics), where he refuted the ancient extramission theory and demonstrated, through rigorous experimentation and mathematical analysis, that light travels from external objects to the eye. His investigations into reflection, refraction, and the camera obscura laid the foundational principles of modern optics. After being translated into Latin, his work profoundly influenced Western scholars, including Roger Bacon. Building on Ibn al-Haytham’s theories, Bacon classified visual perception into three distinct modes—direct, by resemblance, and by reasoning—and strongly advocated the use of optical instruments such as lenses. He further introduced the concept of species to explain light propagation, integrating empirical methods with philosophical inquiry. Both scholars emphasized the importance of observation and experimentation, bridging the gap between theory and practice and laying the groundwork for later technological innovations such as magnifying lenses and the telescope. Their interdisciplinary approach—merging physics, mathematics, and physiology—underscored the transmission of scientific knowledge from the Islamic world to medieval Europe. This study underscores their shared legacy in shaping the early scientific method and demonstrates their essential role in the intellectual foundations of Renaissance optics. Ibn al-Haytham’s empirical rigor and Bacon’s synthesis of his insights exemplify the cross-cultural dialogue that fueled the emergence of early modern science, demonstrating how their contributions transcended temporal and geographic boundaries to influence the trajectory of scientific thought.
The history of science, technology, and medicine in South Asia has gained significant academic recognition in recent decades, with particular emphasis on India’s contributions to global scientific discourse. Within this broader field, the history of agricultural science stands out as a crucial area of inquiry. Agriculture has traditionally been the backbone of the Indian economy, and from ancient times to the colonial period, it has held a central role in the country’s socio-economic fabric. Recognizing its importance, the British colonial administration initiated systematic efforts to reform and modernize Indian agriculture in the early nineteenth century. Drawing on European models, particularly those in England and Germany, experimental farms were established as critical sites for implementing scientific agricultural practices in India. This article investigates the emergence and evolution of agricultural experimental farms in colonial India, with a specific focus on Bengal in the late nineteenth century. It explores the nature of experiments conducted on crops, farming techniques, and agricultural machinery, providing an overview of how these efforts shaped the trajectory of Indian agriculture. The study is grounded in both primary and secondary sources, including institutional and archival reports. Archival materials from the West Bengal State Archives have been systematically collected, historically interpreted, and scientifically analyzed to construct a foundational narrative. The article argues that these experimental farms served as crucial intersections of colonial policy, scientific inquiry, and agrarian transformation, thereby offering valuable insights into the process of agricultural modernization in colonial South Asia.
The classical Indian astronomical text, the Sūryasiddhānta, provides a comprehensive framework for calculating the positions of celestial bodies through a set of well-defined, planet-specific procedures. While the computation of true planetary positions involves both longitudes and latitudes, each governed by distinct rules and corrections, while the determination of the true geocentric longitudes (nirayaṇa) for any given time and location was already presented in our previous study. Expanding upon that foundation, the present study addresses the computation of true geocentric latitudes and declinations of the planets, employing the algorithm outlined in the Sūryasiddhānta. The methodology is applied to calculate the planetary latitudes and declinations at the time of sunrise on March 30, 2025, for Mandi, Himachal Pradesh. The results are compared with the geocentric latitudes of the planetary data from Stellarium to evaluate the precision and reliability of the traditional algorithm, offering insights into its applicability for contemporary astronomical modeling.
Cosmetology in ancient India was a sophisticated integration of aesthetics, health, and spirituality, where saundarya (beauty) expressed holistic physical and mental harmony. This research offers a comprehensive historical and literary analysis of its evolution, drawing on archaeological findings, Vedic literature, and Āyurvedic classics. The study critically examines references to cosmetic practices from the Indus Valley Civilization, revealing advanced knowledge of personal hygiene, adornment, perfumery, and grooming tools. Vedic and post-Vedic texts—including the Ṛgveda, Arthaśāstra, and Epics—detail the ritualistic and social significance of añjana, herbal pastes, and perfumery. A primary focus is on Āyurveda’s contribution, where beauty results from doṣa–dhātu–agni balance and ojas. The research reviews daily regimens (dinacaryā), rasāyana therapies, and specialized texts such as Haramekhala Saṃhitā and Gandhasāra to document ancient knowledge of perfumes and aesthetic procedures. By consolidating scattered references into a systematic resource, including classification of cosmetics and procedural monographs, this study establishes that ancient Indian cosmetology was an evidence-based, holistic science. It demonstrates that these traditional practices remain profoundly relevant to contemporary natural and integrative cosmetology, bridging ancient wisdom with modern applications.
This study examines the metaphysical foundations of world-origin theories in Darśana-śāstra-s, with a focus on the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school in the first part of a multi-part series. Special attention is given to its atomic theory (paramāṇu-kāraṇa-vāda), evaluating it through both traditional interpretations and contemporary scientific perspectives. Primary Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika texts, such as the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Nyāya Sūtra, and Padārtha-Dharma-Saṅgraha, were critically examined, with an emphasis on the theory of atomic aggregation (pracaya). Comparative methodology was employed to correlate classical concepts with modern crystallography and atomic theory. Inter-systemic critiques from Vedānta and Buddhist schools were incorporated to broaden the philosophical context. Paninian grammatical tools were also used to extract the latent scientific terminology embedded in the texts. Significant discrepancies were identified in the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika model, including the indivisibility of atoms and the inappropriate generalisation of Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) structures. A reinterpretation of Kaṇāda’s atomistic sūtras was proposed using principles from modern chemistry and materials science. Possible parallels with crystallographic terms like “unit cell” and “lattice” were explored. The paper affirms that Kaṇāda’s paramāṇu is a stable causal entity that transforms into four aṇu-s during creation. It highlights conceptual continuity between ancient atomism and modern science, offering directions for future research in Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS).
Although there are multiple studies related to the Ahom rule in Assam, only a few focus on Ahom military structures and their victories against the Mughal and other contemporary rulers. Even among the latter works, technological progress and the use of weapons have taken primacy, while strategy and its formulation by individuals, particularly women, have been neglected. In this paper, an attempt has been made to address the lacuna, thereby consolidating the studies of the military history of medieval northeastern India, in general, and Assam, in particular. As a result, on a theoretical plane, the paper tries to move beyond technologically determined frameworks of historiography as provided by Marxism and other related ideologies.
Throughout history, human needs have revolved around food, sustenance, and shelter. Early societies sought refuge in caves before transitioning to huts and, later, more elaborate dwellings. Beyond mere utility, homes represent security, cultural identity, and socio-economic status while serving as vital centres for preserving and transmitting heritage. This study explores traditional construction methods in Kumaun, focusing on materials, tools, artisans, and the cultural significance of various structures. These methods, deeply rooted in the region’s history, climate, and geography, highlight indigenous wisdom passed down through generations. However, traditional construction faces numerous challenges in the modern era, including demographic shifts, natural disasters, restrictive policies on natural resource use, and the declining availability of skilled masons. Additionally, the easy accessibility of modern materials further threatens traditional practices. Field visits to villages and interviews with masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, and labourers provide valuable insights into Kumaun’s architectural heritage. The study documents the advantages of traditional construction, including climate adaptability, durability, and sustainability, while also addressing the obstacles that hinder its continuation. The evolution of these techniques has been influenced by changing cultural values, government policies, and economic transformations. A major challenge is obtaining permits to use essential materials, such as timber and stone, which are integral to traditional architecture. The study aims to preserve and analyse this knowledge, advocating for a balanced approach that integrates traditional methods with contemporary construction practices. By doing so, it seeks to preserve these time-honoured techniques while promoting sustainable, locally adapted building solutions.
