With the rising number of maltreatment recurrence episodes in recent years and cultural differences in understanding child maltreatment across countries, the current study aims to comprehensively analyze the existing literature related to child maltreatment recurrence in Korea, including the definition, type of studies, prevalence, and risk/protective factors. The present review systematically searched for records until February 29, 2024, which yielded a total of 16 articles. The results showed that the definitions frequently included the keywords, such as “same victim child,” “same perpetrator,” “family/relatives as the perpetrator,” and “victim child aged below 17 or 18.” While the overall prevalence of child maltreatment re-report was 10.83%, the re-substantiation or recurrence rate was 9.00%. Additionally, maltreatment recurrence rate was the highest after more than 2 years of the first maltreatment report (10.51%). Some of the risk and protective factors included the physical abuse allegation, parental alcohol abuse, intimate partner violence, removal of children, out-of-home placement, longer provision of child welfare services, and follow-up monitoring service. Based on these findings, the present review suggests updating the definition of maltreatment recurrence to be more child-centered, increasing monthly stipends to secure more foster homes, and providing evidence-based post-permanency services.
This systematic review identifies, summarises, and critically evaluates quantitative studies examining the relationship between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) victimisation and physical, sexual, and psychological intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration in adult males. A database search was conducted to identify eligible studies. A synthesis and appraisal of methodological quality of the primary studies was conducted. Fifteen studies were reviewed, comprising of a total of 48,699 men. Despite methodological and statistical heterogeneity, this review indicates an association between CSA victimisation and all three (i.e., physical, sexual and psychological) domains of IPV perpetration in adult males. Overall, study quality was assessed as ‘fair’. The relationship between CSA victimisation and IPV in adulthood in males requires further exploration. Research in this area has thus far relied predominantly on self-reported IPV perpetration within community-based, non-forensic samples. Future studies would benefit from including objective assessments of IPV and from examining the CSA-IPV relationship in offender samples. Further research examining the pathways from CSA to IPV is needed.
This study examined how distinct dimensions of psychopathy shape behavioral, emotional, and physiological responses to social exclusion, a paradigm known to elicit reactive aggression. Male and female participants from the community were randomized with an unequal 3:1 allocation to the exclusion (n = 121) and inclusion condition (n = 38) in a computerized Cyberball task while their skin conductance and heart rate were recorded. They then completed tasks to assess their retaliatory behavior. Divergent effects emerged across psychopathy dimensions. Higher Fearless Dominance was associated with reduced retaliatory aggression and faster heart rate habituation, suggesting emotional resilience and efficient physiological regulation. In contrast, higher Self-Centered Impulsivity was associated with heightened negative affect and increased retaliatory behavior, with negative affect mediating the psychopathy–retaliation link. Finally, Coldheartedness was linked to reduced prosocial allocation, indicating diminished affiliative motivation. These findings support a dual-mechanism framework in which interpersonal–affective traits confer emotional stability and low reactivity, whereas impulsive–antisocial traits promote affective dysregulation and reactive aggression. Results highlight the multidimensional nature of psychopathy and underscore the importance of affective reactivity as a proximal mechanism driving aggression. By integrating behavioral, affective, and psychophysiological measures, this study advances understanding of psychopathy's heterogeneous pathways to aggression and informs development of more precise, mechanism-based interventions.
Although differences in EEG activity have been documented in externalizing individuals compared to controls, much less is known about whether EEG abnormalities are observed in relation to psychopathy. This study tests the hypothesis that among children diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, those who have more psychopathic-like traits differ from those with fewer psychopathic-like traits in their electrocortical activity by having excessive slow-wave EEG and more right-lateralized alpha power. Analyses were performed on a clinical sample of children aged 7 to 16 years who were assessed at five time points over one year using the Antisocial Process Screening Device and who had EEG recordings at rest (n = 119) and during a stress task at baseline (n = 126). Children with externalizing behavior and higher psychopathy scores during a 12-month window exhibited increased theta activity across multiple brain regions during rest and stress compared to externalizing children with fewer psychopathic-like traits. Greater delta power at rest and stress was also seen in the high psychopathy group, particularly in the parietal and occipital areas. When EEG was measured during stress, externalizing children with more psychopathic-like traits showed greater relative left frontal cortical activation compared to those with fewer psychopathic-like traits. These findings are discussed in the context of the stimulation-seeking theory, the cortical immaturity hypothesis, approach-related behavior, and default mode network abnormalities.
This study examined how four proximal radicalisation processes, namely antisocial attitudes and behaviour, prejudice, identity problems and political/religious ideology predict political extremism among adolescents and young adults. Drawing on the social-developmental radicalisation model, we analysed data from a large sample of young people (N = 5721) aged 13 to 24 years (M = 15.6) who participated in the 2024 Communities That Care Youth Survey in Lower Saxony, Germany. Structural equation models were used to test the unique contribution of these four processes to extreme political attitudes and the affinity for political violence, and multi-group analyses assessed whether predictive pathways varied by gender, age and migration background. All four processes significantly predicted both extremism indicators, with political/religious ideology emerging as the most substantial predictor across models. Multi-group analyses revealed systematic differences across demographic groups, indicating that developmental stage and social background meaningfully shape how radicalisation-related processes unfold. Overall, the findings provide robust empirical support for the social-developmental radicalisation model and underscore the importance of developmentally sensitive, tailored, and group-specific approaches to preventing extremism among young people.
Fixation, driven by delusion, obsession, or an extreme overvalued belief, frequently precedes lone-actor grievance-fuelled violence. Extreme overvalued beliefs are a novel concept in threat assessment and refer to a pathological preoccupation with a shared belief or ideology that grows increasingly intense and emotional over time. They are believed to be ego-syntonic, aligning with one's identity, and frequently fuelled by a personal or moral grievance. However, much remains unknown about the aetiology, risk and escalation to violence. This systematic scoping review explored psychosocial risk factors of fixated offenders driven by extreme, overvalued and delusion-like beliefs who committed acts of lone-actor grievance-fuelled violence. A systematic search of eight medical and social science databases was conducted, as well as a backwards and forward citation search, to identify research papers that covered violent, non-delusional, fixated lone offenders. A total of 3050 papers were uploaded for screening, with 64 papers meeting the inclusion criteria. The psychosocial factors were structured and synthesised using a clinical case formulation, which displayed some patterns across studies of the effects of social media use, online information gathering, isolation, fixation with previous offenders, narcissism, depression, and neurodivergence. However, the findings were scarce and inconsistent. The eligible papers consisted primarily of case studies and case series, and many focused on the same offenders. These limitations are discussed with recommendations for future research, which would benefit from more rigorous empirical evidence and consistency in terminology and conceptualisation of extreme overvalued beliefs. Fixation is a significant risk factor for violent extremism and lone actor violence, and exploring the underlying psychopathology is essential for reliable clinical and forensic evaluations.
The existing theoretical and empirical studies on adolescents' defending behaviors are mostly derived from the cultural background of individualism, and fail to fully explain the complex mechanism of defending victims in the Chinese culture that emphasizes collective harmony and relationship orientation. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to fill the theoretical gap in this cultural context, and to explore the influence of “good student” attributes (prosociality and high academic achievement) emphasized in the Chinese cultural context on the defending behaviors of adolescents and the potential role of social preference (from teachers and peers). This study conducted three follow-up surveys (six-month interval) of 2347 Chinese adolescents (48.9% girls, T1: Mage = 13.38, SD = 0.59) students, and tested the above potential mechanisms and gender differences through mediating effect analysis and group comparison. Results indicated that prosociality positively predicted subsequent defending, whereas academic achievement was negatively associated with defending. Both factors were indirectly linked to defending through teacher and peer preference, with teacher preference exerting a stronger mediating effect. Gender differences further emerged, such that prosociality predicted defending via teacher preference among girls, but via peer preference among boys. Findings highlighted the interplaying impact of personal, and interpersonal characteristics and gender on defending behaviors within Chinese culture.
Bullying is associated with a range of psychosocial problems, including depression, anxiety, social anxiety, low self-esteem, and loneliness. However, no studies have been conducted to systematically summarize the literature on the associations between bullying and psychosocial problems in China. This study conducted a meta-analysis of the existing research on these associations. The present study quantitatively analyzed 71 empirical studies, encompassing a total of 130,176 Chinese participants. Various research characteristics (including gender, age group, region, publication language, article type, bullying measurement, measures of psychosocial problems, and bullying type) were analyzed as moderators. The findings revealed a significant association between bullying perpetration and anxiety (r = 0.191), depression (r = 0.261), social anxiety (r = 0.230), loneliness (r = 0.226), and self-esteem (r = −0.262). There were significant associations between bullying victimization and anxiety (r = 0.353), depression (r = 0.327), social anxiety (r = 0.296), loneliness (r = 0.296), and self-esteem (r = −0.253). In addition, gender, region, publication language, article type, and bullying measurements significantly moderated the associations between bullying and most psychosocial problems. The current findings suggest that there is a significant association between both perpetration and victimization of bullying and psychosocial problems among Chinese children and adolescents.
In Iran, violence against women (VAWG) remains highly prevalent, with reported rates ranging from 22.9% to 66%, underscoring the need for effective, contextually grounded interventions. This scoping review aimed to systematically identify, map, and critically appraise intervention strategies addressing VAWG in Iran. Guided by PRISMA-ScR and the PICOS framework, comprehensive searches were conducted across nine databases from 2000 to September 2024. Eligible studies included intervention-based research conducted in Iran that reported outcomes related to violence reduction, psychological well-being, or empowerment. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The included studies demonstrated heterogeneous designs, theoretical frameworks, and outcome measures. Four interventions targeted primary prevention through educational and skills-based approaches, five addressed secondary prevention by supporting women currently experiencing violence, and four focused on tertiary prevention through long-term psychosocial or empowerment-based support. High-impact interventions reported statistically significant reductions in domestic or intimate partner violence and improvements in psychological resilience, self-efficacy, and mental health outcomes. Empowerment-, behavioral-, and psychosocial-based frameworks emerged as the most consistently practical approaches within the Iranian context. Findings highlight the importance of culturally adapted, theory-informed, and multi-level interventions for addressing GBV in Iran. While several interventions demonstrated promising outcomes, variability in methodological rigor and limited long-term evaluation indicate the need for continued refinement and more robust research designs. This review provides an evidence base to inform policy and practice and to guide future intervention development in Iran. It offers insights relevant to other settings with similar sociocultural and structural contexts.
Parent-child separation caused by parental migration greatly puts left-behind adolescents at increased risk for delinquency. Yet, existing studies have generally treated them as a homogeneous group, focusing primarily on delinquency incidence while overlooking differences in delinquency trajectories among left-behind adolescents with complex parent-child separation experiences. To fill these gaps, this study examined the effects of timing of separation, separation duration, and intervals of parent-child communication on heterogeneous developmental trajectories of delinquency among left-behind adolescents. A total of 3845 adolescents (42.8% girls; Mage = 12.94 years, SD = 0.57), including 775 with both-parent migration, 1000 with father-only migration, 69 with mother-only migration, and 2001 without parental migration, were assessed on five occasions with six-month intervals. Parent-child separation experiences were assessed at Time 1 and delinquency was assessed at all times. Results showed that the latent class growth model identified three delinquency trajectories: low-stable (48.7%), moderate early increase followed by slight deceleration (41.6%), and high early increase followed by moderate deceleration (9.7%). Compared to adolescents from non-parent migrant families, those from mother-only and both-parent migrant families were more likely to be classified into the high early increase followed by moderate deceleration group and moderate early increase followed by slight deceleration group, respectively. Moreover, left-behind adolescents experiencing parent-child separation during infancy and longer intervals of face-to-face parent-child communication were associated with increased odds of membership in the high early increase followed by moderate deceleration group. However, father-only migration, separation duration, and long-distance communication intervals were not significantly related to delinquency trajectories. These findings indicate that parent-child separation does not inevitably result in all left-behind adolescents following high-risk delinquency trajectories, which may vary by different parent-child experiences.
Adolescent interpersonal violence (AIV) is a global public health concern, and understanding the variation in prevalence estimates in Asia is particularly important for intervention programmes and policy making given the substantial sociocultural diversity across the region. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the prevalence, temporal trends, culture, and correlates of AIV perpetration in Asia. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycINFO from database inception to Jan 30, 2024, for observational studies reporting offline AIV perpetration in Asian settings. 106 studies involving 589,585 participants were included for analysis. The overall prevalence of AIV perpetration in Asia, regardless of frequency definitions, was 19.11% (95% CI: 15.95–22.72) and the pooled prevalence of frequent AIV perpetration (two or three times a month, 32 studies) was 9.32% (95% CI: 7.37–11.73). Temporally, frequent AIV perpetration persisted over the past two decades, with prevalence ranging from 7.64% to 8.51%, but varied substantially across geographical and sociocultural contexts, from 6.37% in Macao, China to 22.15% in Turkey, and was higher in short-term-oriented than in long-term-oriented regions (15.13% vs. 8.56%). Higher pooled prevalence was also observed among boys, older adolescents, adolescents with a history of victimization, those with psychological strain, and those reporting poor parent–child relationships. Our findings highlight important implications for policy and practice, suggesting that AIV prevention programmes in Asia may benefit from being more culturally informed, particularly in relation to future-oriented norms, and from placing greater emphasis on adolescents experiencing psychological strain.
Research has identified homelessness and housing insecurity as a risk factor for experiencing human trafficking, and housing often emerges as a pressing need experienced by many human trafficking survivors. Given the intersection of housing and human trafficking, we conducted a systematic review to identify and synthesize the research examining housing interventions for those who have experienced human trafficking. Our search for peer-reviewed and grey literature in 12 bibliographic databases and 11 websites yielded 17 studies that met the following criteria: (a) available in English; (b) empirical; (c) conducted in the United States; and (d) examined or evaluated a housing service or intervention for people who had experienced human trafficking or were identified as being at risk for trafficking. Study quality was assessed using the Quality Appraisal Checklist for Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Studies and findings were synthesized using a structured narrative approach. The reviewed studies included environment scans, process evaluations, outcome evaluations, and combined process/outcome evaluations. Four types of housing services and interventions were identified: (a) residential treatment facilities, (b) group home treatment facilities, (c) crisis housing and shelter, and (d) transitional housing. The review identified promising findings and practices related to the various housing approaches. Nonetheless, review findings highlight key gaps in research on housing services and interventions for human trafficking survivors (e.g., few outcome evaluations, pre-experimental designs). To adequately address survivors' housing needs, there is a clear need for more research focused on evaluating trafficking housing services and interventions using rigorous designs inclusive of diverse survivor voices.
Antisocial behaviour (ASB) is associated with negative outcomes later in life, such as criminal behaviour. Prior research found resting heart rate (RHR) to be one of the most robust physiological correlates of ASB, where a lower RHR was associated with higher levels of ASB. This relationship could be mediated by sensation seeking (SS), where SS could result from a lack of inhibition, marked by a low RHR, or could be employed to raise the heart rate to a more comfortable level of arousal. However, there is currently little proof that the relationships between ASB, RHR, and SS are causal. This study therefore used multilevel mixed effects models including between- and within-family effects to study the relationships between ASB, RHR, and SS. Relationships were first investigated in a broad sample (N = 8422), then in a subsample of dizygotic (DZ) twins (N = 1927), and finally, the relationship between SS and ASB was investigated in a subsample of monozygotic (MZ) twins (N = 2599). Polygenic scores for RHR, used as a proxy for RHR, only predicted ASB between families in the broad sample, without mediation of SS. RHR was not associated with ASB in the DZ sample. Conversely, SS significantly predicted ASB in the broad sample. Additionally, the between- and within-family effect of SS significantly predicted ASB in the DZ and MZ sample, which is consistent with a potential causal relationship. SS could therefore be an effective target for ASB interventions, regardless of RHR.
The orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala are two key brain areas frequently implicated in the etiology of violent and psychopathic behavior. This study examines whether structural abnormalities in these regions characterize homicidal offenders, and investigates the role of psychopathy in any such relationships. Structural MRI was conducted on 37 murderers referred for forensic examination and 50 community controls from China. Psychopathic personality was assessed by forensic psychiatrists using the PCL-R. The orbitofrontal cortex was segmented into medial and lateral regions, while surface-based anatomical modeling was used to identify deformations within the amygdala. Covariates included age, gender, total intracranial volume, schizophrenia, cognitive functioning, substance use, broken homes, and head injury. Murderers compared to controls had a smaller volume of the lateral, but not medial orbitofrontal cortex, in addition to smaller amygdala volumes, particularly in the left hemisphere. Deformations to the left amygdala in murderers were localized to the central, lateral, and basolateral nuclei. Murderers who planned their homicides showed a 14.3% reduction in the size of the amygdala. Within the murderer group, higher psychopathy scores were associated with reduced amygdala volumes, particularly with respect to affective features of psychopathy. Murderer-control differences could be attributed to higher levels of psychopathic personality in murderers. Sensitivity analyses confirmed findings. Findings implicate for the first time orbitofrontal and amygdala volume reductions in pre-trial murderers, and are suggestive of anomalies in emotional and moral decision-making, punishment sensitivity, and guilt in this group.
The neuromoral theory of antisocial behavior by Raine (2009) states that impairments in overlapping areas in the brain cause both moral and aggressive problems. However, this theory was based on findings from adult literature. This systematic review aimed to assess structural and resting-state MRI studies on aggression and antisocial behavior, focusing on six key areas of neuromoral impairment: the amygdala, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the insula, the medial prefrontal/orbitofrontal cortex (mPFC/OFC), the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the temporoparietal junction (TPJ). Results from 65 studies (47 structural MRI, 18 resting-state MRI) show that child and adolescent samples also show structural differences in the neuromoral areas, with the amygdala and mPFC showing the most prominent results. Research on the insula, ACC, PCC, and TPJ likewise identifies structural abberartions, though the effects are typically more subtle and variable. Resting-state studies have reported hyperconnectivity between the amygdala and both ACC and PCC, as well as between the ACC, mPFC and insula. In contrast, hypoconnectivity has been observed betweeen the mPFC and amygdala, PCC and TPJ. Integrating these findings with broader neurodevelopmental theories of antisocial aggressive behavior, these findings provide preliminary support for certain elements of the neuromoral theory of antisocial behavior emerging already in childhood and adolescence. However, it remains unclear whether these early neural patterns reflect a trajectory towards life-time persistent aggression, as evidence regarding key factors, such as aggression subtypes, personality, and early life adversity, remains linited.
Exposure to violence is a well-established risk factor for preterm birth (PTB), but the impact of the types, timing, and frequency of violence remains unclear. Research often dichotomizes violence exposure as ever/never and relies on self-reports. We aimed to examine the impact of different violence victimization experiences on PTB utilizing linked administrative data for a birth cohort. Data from a 1990 Queensland birth cohort of 22,039 females were analyzed. Data on PTB and mental disorders were drawn from inpatient health records and violence experiences from Child Protection Services and Domestic Violence Orders records. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the association between violence experiences and PTB. Out of 22,039 females, 4150 (18.8%) were registered as having at least one child, of which 11.1% (n = 460) had at least one PTB. Mothers identifying as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander and teenage mothers were at increased risk of having PTB. Experiencing violence for the first time within one-year before childbirth, being victimized both during childhood and adulthood, experiencing childhood neglect, or domestic violence during adulthood, and experiencing multiple episodes of victimization, were significantly associated with the risk of PTB. This study expands upon existing evidence on the association between violence exposure and PTB by exploring different aspects of violence victimization. It calls attention to an urgent need for early interventions to address childhood maltreatment and provide ongoing support to prevent violence during adulthood, particularly during the prenatal period, for reducing PTB.
At present, aggressive behavior is widely recognized as a significant public safety and health issue, and has been proven to adversely affect children's and adolescents' academic performance, mental health, and social adaptation. Therefore, the exploration of its risk factors has become a focus for researchers. Among them, parental control, as a common parenting style, has long been the focus of global researchers on its association with children's aggressive behavior. Throughout previous studies, numerous researchers have actively explored the relationship between parental control and children's aggressive behavior. However, due to various factors such as sample characteristics, research methods, and contexts, studies have yet to reach a consistent conclusion. To address the above dilemma, this study will use three-level meta-analysis to explore the relationship between parental control and children's aggressive behavior, and to examine a series of potential moderating factors. Firstly, relevant literature was searched in Web of Science, PubMed, and Pro Quest databases. Then, two authors independently reviewed and encoded the retrieved literature, and reached consensus. Finally, the current meta-analysis included a total of 100 studies (895 effect sizes), comprising 73,449 children and adolescents. The results show that parental control is significantly positively correlated with children's aggressive behavior, and there is no significant publication bias in the current obtained results. Moderator analyses revealed that the children's gender, academic stage, cultural background, variable types, measurement scales, and reporting methods significantly moderate the relationship between the two variables.
The search for brain mechanisms of psychopathy has diverse potential starting points. In this review, we propose taking an approach that begins with the question: why do we need a brain? Adopting this starting point requires examining evolutionary evidence, which indicates that brains evolved to anticipate and meet the needs of the body before they arise (i.e., allostasis), and that brains, in service of this aim, continually model and sense the internal conditions of the body (i.e., interoception). These fundamental functions of the nervous system are carried out in part by the allostatic-interoceptive system, which spans brainstem nuclei, subcortical structures, and large-scale cortical networks (i.e., default mode, salience, and somatomotor networks). Psychopathy is related to alterations of the brain’s allostatic-interoceptive system, particularly the cortical extent, in terms of its myeloarchitecture, task-based neural activity, and functional connectivity. Synthesizing evidence of these alterations, we propose that psychopathy is marked by an impaired integrative capacity of the allostatic-interoceptive cortices, resulting in visceromotor signals that lack rich contextual details and that regulate the viscera in a relatively context-insensitive manner. Impoverished visceromotor signals may also hinder the allocation of attention to signals that are relevant to allostasis. However, the extant neuroimaging evidence supporting these hypotheses is highly heterogeneous. We consider two proposals for resolving this heterogeneity, grounded in neuroanatomy and organizing principles of biological systems. Uncovering the brain bases of psychopathy and aggression will likely require moving toward a science of individual brains regulating individual bodies in the context of an ever-changing environment.
Collegiate athletes are at increased risk for both experiencing and perpetrating sexual violence (SV). The current study provides a systematic review and meta-analysis of SV prevention programs targeting student athletes. A search of 31 databases and an extensive grey literature review identified 3071 articles. Studies were included if they (1) implemented a randomized control or matched comparison group design, (2) involved college varsity athletes, (3) focused on SV prevention or awareness, (4) quantitatively reported on SV knowledge, attitudes, perpetration, victimization, or bystander attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors, (5) were published in English between January 1994 and July 2024, and (6) were conducted in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, the USA, or Western Europe. Nine studies provided 17 effects sizes across three outcomes: rape myth acceptance (RMA; k = 8), bystander intentions (k = 5), and bystander behavior (k = 4). Bystander behaviors were significantly improved after intervention; programs were not found to be effective at reducing RMA or changing bystander intentions. Moderator analyses suggest that programs focused on team culture had a negative effect on RMA. Future work targeting the development of sexual violence prevention programs for student athletes should consider catering to the specific group, as opposed to using university-wide programs. While additional research is needed to further explore the effects of SV programs for student athletes, suggestions for program improvement based on the available evidence are discussed.
Physical aggression is a major cause of mortality, disability, and economic burden. A majority of serious aggression is committed by a small proportion of adults and children, many of whom have disorders like psychopathy that are characterized by serious, persistent aggression. An extensive literature has identified mechanisms that may cause such people to struggle to inhibit aggression. But relatively little literature has addressed incentives that may drive persistently aggressive people to aggress in the first place. This review considers forms that physical aggression can take, neurocognitive substrates that support them, and incentives that may motivate some people to engage in these forms of aggression. Defensive aggression is motivated by the desire to defend the self or close others from imminent danger, a justifiable motivation that can result in unjustifiable aggression (beyond what the situation warrants) when committed against non-imminent threats, often due to cognitive or emotional biases that distort perceptions of threat. Frustrative aggression is motivated by the anger evoked by discomfort, provocation, or frustration that can be justifiably aimed at eliminating a source of pain. But frustrative aggression can also be motivated by its subjectively pleasurable, mood-regulating qualities or by social dominance goals. Proactive aggression is motivated by the desire to achieve an instrumental goal using aggression, often because punishment and causing others suffering are inadequate deterrents, but sometimes because causing suffering is the goal. Considering these incentives for aggression, including the neurocognitive mechanisms that support them, may help in developing improved interventions and treatments for serious, persistent aggression.
