Content moderators exposed to graphic content online are at risk of negative mental health outcomes including depression, anxiety and distressing intrusive thoughts—a hallmark symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Yet, there is little research on strategies to protect people exposed to graphic content. Here, we empirically tested a strategy suggested on a range of online sources for handling traumatic imagery–visualizing bulletproof glass exists between oneself and the screen. Using a content moderator simulation paradigm with Amazon Mechanical Turk participants (N = 202), we experimentally tested whether this intervention reduces outcomes associated with exposure to graphic imagery. We found no empirical support for this intervention influencing intrusive thought frequency, negative intrusion characteristics like intensity, anxiety, positive affect, or negative affect. We conclude that this bulletproof glass strategy should not be recommended to groups exposed to graphic content, like content moderators.
Amid pervasive digital connectivity, maintaining digital wellbeing is increasingly important for young people. Yet empirical research on the relationship between parental mediation and digital wellbeing remains limited. Incorporating both variable- and person-centered approaches, this study explores the associations between prior parental mediation, digital disconnection and digital wellbeing among young adults. Data were drawn from 994 Chinese first-year college students (aged between 15 to 22), a developmental stage marked by increasing autonomy over digital life. Variable-centered analyses indicated that only prior active mediation was significantly associated with digital wellbeing, with rule-based disconnection mediating this association. Latent profile analysis showed that most parents practiced different mediation strategies in a balanced way. Five distinct youth-perceived mediation patterns were identified: moderate-involved (37.12%), low-involved (31.79%), high-involved (16.00%), supportive (10.97%), and restriction-oriented (4.12%). Subsequent analysis showed that the high-involved and supportive mediation pattern was most favorable for digital wellbeing, while the low-involved
The growing prevalence of problematic social media use (PSMU) and its negative association with health has become a significant public health concern. Despite increasing attention to its psychological correlates, there remains a critical need to investigate factors that might be associated with the co-occurrence of physical health and PSMU on a fine-grained level. This study aims to examine the symptom-level relationships between PSMU, physical health, self-esteem, and self-compassion and investigate potential gender differences in these relationships. A sample of 2912 Czech adults (Age: M = 27.6, SD = 12.3, Females: 61.02%) was used to examine the relationships. A stratified network analysis based on undirected mixed graphical models and network comparison tests were conducted to inspect the gender differences. Distinct gender-specific patterns were found. In women, the use of social media to escape negative emotions emerged as a bridge symptom linking PSMU with physical health. In men, fewer and weaker connections were observed between specific PSMU and physical health symptoms. Self-esteem bridged a new cluster of physical health symptoms through escape-use in both genders. Self-compassion bridged escape-use with physical health symptoms in women, whereas no direct associations were observed in men. However, the inclusion of self-compassion in the men’s network was associated with changes in existing connections, making all links between PSMU and physical health absent. These findings highlight the gender-specific nature of PSMU and underscore the need for nuanced approaches when fostering potentially protective factors that may be relevant to physical health.
This study investigates perceptions of AI-generated profile pictures and how disclosure of AI use shapes impressions. In a preregistered experiment, U.S. adults (N = 817; ages 18–99, M = 47.83, SD = 18.79; 48% men and 50% women) evaluated what they were told were social media profile pictures. The 2 × 2 factorial design varied whether images, all with a professional headshot style, were AI-generated and whether they were disclosed as AI-generated. Across three outcomes, AI-generated images were rated as higher quality than professional photos of the same subjects, but disclosure that an image was AI-generated reduced perceived quality. On average, AI generation and disclosure did not significantly affect perceptions of the person's social attractiveness or trustworthiness. Exploratory analyses indicated that self-assessed AI knowledge moderated responses to disclosure: lower-knowledge respondents downgraded labeled images and the depicted person, whereas higher-knowledge respondents evaluated labeled images and the person more positively. Taken together, the findings suggest that disclosure of AI use primarily affects evaluations of the image as an object rather than person-level impressions.
This study extends research on the ‘privacy paradox’ to the horizontal (privacy vis-à-vis peers) and vertical (privacy vis-à-vis institutions) dimensions of privacy on social media, and tests perceived benefits, privacy self-efficacy, and privacy cynicism as moderating factors for the privacy paradox on both dimensions. A cross-sectional online survey with a sample of U.S. adult social media users (N = 1,398) revealed no evidence for the privacy paradox on either the horizontal or the vertical privacy dimension (i.e., privacy concerns were positively associated with privacy management behaviors). Interestingly, perceived benefits and privacy cynicism moderated the relationships between privacy concerns and privacy management behaviors, though in the opposite direction to our prediction. In particular, the positive relationship between privacy concerns and privacy management behaviors was stronger among those with higher perceived benefits on the vertical dimension, and among those with higher privacy cynicism on both the horizontal and vertical dimensions. On the other hand, privacy self-efficacy was not a significant moderator on either dimension. Results demonstrate the multidimensional nature of online privacy and highlight the impact of conceptual and operational decisions on “finding” the privacy paradox.
With the use of AI, modern writing-assistants can offer users recommendations on more subjective, socially relevant communication style aspects like emotional tone. While these recommendations commonly aim to affect interpersonal interaction outcomes, user acceptance determines the recommendations’ actual impact on the resulting messages and potential downstream effects on message recipients. The present research aimed to investigate this interplay of an AI-based writing-assistant’s recommendations for emotional tone, users’ acceptance, and recipients’ perceptions of the messages and the sender. Two online experiments used the context of online negotiations (Ntotal = 1,532, native English speakers residing in the UK) to investigate if users’ acceptance of a writing assistant for emotional tone was affected by whether its recommendations a) utilized AI-based functionalities and b) promoted a positive or negative emotional tone. Users tended to show greater acceptance of AI-based than non-AI recommendations, independent of whether a positive or negative emotional tone was recommended. A third study (N = 408) then investigated recipients’ perceptions of the produced messages. Recipients’ ratings of revised and original messages differed significantly regarding the messages’ emotional tone, their interpersonal impression of the messages’ sender, and their willingness to make concessions. Results thus suggest that the examined recommendations can elicit revisions to the emotional tone of interpersonal messages in the recommended direction and that these changes consequently affect the messages’ social effects. Hence, the present research illustrates the relevance of AI-based functionalities in writing-assistants for users’ acceptance and potential effects on interpersonal interaction outcomes once messages are sent.
This study investigated whether accelerated video playback affects cognitive load and comprehension, focusing on the moderating role of working memory capacity. With speed control widely available on digital platforms, it is crucial to understand how individuals cognitively process video content presented at varying speeds. To examine this, eye movements were recorded while 38 participants (16 males, 22 females; age range = 19–26 years, M = 22.5, SD = 1.9) watched information-oriented videos at varying speeds, followed immediately by a recall test. Results indicated that as playback speed increased, perceptual load increased for all participants. However, cognitive load and comprehension patterns differed by working memory capacity. Individuals with lower working memory capacity showed shallow processing, as indicated by the absence of elevated cognitive load, and exhibited significantly reduced accuracy in recall tasks. This suggests that they were unable to sufficiently process and retain key information due to the limitations in their cognitive resources. In contrast, individuals with higher capacity showed increased cognitive load under high-speed conditions yet maintained stable recall performance. This implies that their greater capacity to process information enabled deep processing and successful transfer to long-term memory. These findings highlight the importance of considering individual cognitive differences when evaluating the effectiveness of speed-watching strategies. Working memory capacity critically determines how well viewers can cope with the rapid presentation of multimodal content. Ultimately, our findings suggest that speed adjustment may not be an efficient strategy for all users, highlighting the need for cognitively responsive designs that foster user-centered ICT environments.
The global mental health crisis has driven the rise of apps using conversational agents (CAs) to complement or replace human professional support. Offline, the success of such interventions often depends on the relationship between the help-seeker and the support provider. Online, psychological processes elicited by specific app features relating to the CA and its unique story design might play a significant role. However, research on these processes and their consequences on user engagement and well-being is scarce. To shed light on this, we conducted a cross-sectional study with 348 active users of the mental health app Betwixt. The app integrates a scripted CA as a mentor, guiding users through levels of self-development within a dream-like fantasy narrative. We tested how perceived synthetic relationships with the CA (based on the Relational Models Theory, Fiske, 1992) and narrative transportation (i.e., the extent to which users become absorbed in the story) relate to app engagement and perceived stress. Our findings indicate that a strong sense of narrative transportation and perceiving the CA as friend-like positively predict hedonic benefits and future usage intentions. However, these factors were not significantly associated with perceived stress. Our results contribute to the emerging field of synthetic relationships and highlight the potential of narrative transportation for developers of apps using similar designs. We also discuss the ethical concerns of fostering friend-like relationships with CAs and their practical implications for developers and mental health professionals.
While the proliferation of smart home technologies and the domestic Internet of Things (IoT) bring opportunities for a high level of control over household appliances and entertainment systems, it also presents challenges, not least in terms of privacy. In this study, we explore domestic IoT users’ perceptions of privacy issues and digital risk through in-depth semistructured interviews and digital home visits with 12 adults in 10 households in Norway. Based on the results of this study, we present a framework for an updated understanding of current privacy protection behaviors and decision-making from the perspective of domestic IoT users. Our “Scales of Privacy" model provides a holistic view of the process underlying the privacy calculus framework, incorporating both perceived risks and perceived benefits of data disclosure and including neutralizing factors, such as privacy cynicism and “nothing to hide” arguments. The results show a variety of perceived sources of risk, including national entities, technology companies, hackers, and partners/family. However, we highlight a discrepancy between the understanding of risk and perceived risk of our informants, on the one hand, and their actual behavior, on the other. We examine users’ stated reasons for utilizing an IoT-connected technology despite the risk, identifying five underlying motivations. Two were intrinsically related to the frictionless user experience provided by the devices (i.e., convenience and ease of use), whereas the remaining three (i.e., inevitability, unimpeachability and indiscernibility) revealed attitudes toward privacy protection partially influenced by a sense of being overwhelmed by the friction-filled experience of setting boundaries around personal data in the current digital environment.
Visually and humorously packaged hate messages spread quickly on social media and thus may be shared in private chat groups, where they may trigger conflicts. In such situations, individuals must decide whether to speak up, remain passive, and/or leave the group. This study investigates how relational dynamics influence individual responses in such potentially contentious situations. Specifically, we examined the effects of relationship closeness and conformity to descriptive norms on the intention to comment and the intention to leave a group following the posting of a racist meme. A total of 1,090 German-speaking participants (60% female, 40% male, 1% diverse) with a mean age of 49.8 (SD = 13.84, range = 24–87) took part in an online experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to one of six conditions in a 2×3 factorial design, manipulating relationship closeness (low, high) and group response to a racist meme (no reaction, full reaction, mixed reaction). Higher relationship closeness to the group significantly increased the intention to comment on the meme, whereas participants in the high-closeness condition reported a significantly lower intention to leave the group. Contrary to expectations, group response had no significant effect on the intention to comment, challenging assumptions about conformity pressures in online groups. The results suggest that relationship closeness is more influential than mere descriptive norms in private group settings, contributing to a refined understanding of social impact and conformity processes in digital environments.
A growing number of teenagers use social media, where they are frequently exposed to misinformation, including conspiracy theories. This cross-sectional study examines the relationships between social media use (with a focus on overall frequency and information-seeking use), tendency toward rational and experiential thinking, and conspiracy beliefs among adolescents from Romania and Poland. We hypothesized that while social media tends to spread conspiracy theories, such information is most likely to translate into beliefs among those with lower levels of rational thinking. The total sample comprised 561 participants (Mage = 17.27, SDage = 0.79). The results indicated that social media use for information-seeking—but not the frequency of social media use—positively predicts conspiracy beliefs among adolescents. However, tendencies toward both rational and experiential thinking moderated these relationships: the positive associations between social media use and conspiracy beliefs were significant only among adolescents with low or medium levels of rational thinking (for both frequency of use and information-seeking use), as well as among those with low or medium levels of experiential thinking (for information-seeking use only). We also found moderating effects for other purposes of social media use, specifically self-presentation and entertainment. In general, our study shows that the tendency toward rational thinking moderates the relationship between more purposes of social media use and conspiracy beliefs, suggesting that rational-analytical processing provides broader protection across different online activities.
This paper examines the digital divide by investigating how smartphone use and digital exclusion are associated with the physical, psychological, and social well-being of marginalized populations—including migrants, people experiencing homelessness, and prisoners—across five correlational studies (total N = 817). The findings reveal both benefits (e.g., fostering integration and connection) and drawbacks (e.g., exacerbating psychological challenges) of smartphone use. Study 1 explored smartphone usage among migrants (N = 278), showing that information-seeking apps (e.g., location services) were positively associated with psychological need satisfaction, physical health, and adaptation, whereas communication apps were not significantly associated with any of the outcome variables. Studies 2a (N = 75) and 2b (N = 174) focused on migrants during their migration journeys. In Study 2a, smartphone use for communication was positively associated with adaptation. In contrast, using smartphones for emotional regulation was linked to poorer psychological well-being in both studies. Study 3 investigated smartphone use among people experiencing homelessness (N = 71), revealing that communication was positively associated with psychological health, whereas use for emotional regulation was tied to lower psychological well-being. Finally, Study 4 examined prisoners (N = 219), linking limited technological skills to poorer physical and psychological well-being, while lack of access alone was not significantly associated with these outcomes. Overall, the results point to meaningful links between smartphone use and experiences of integration and connection among marginalized groups, as well as to poorer psychological well-being associated with using smartphones for emotion regulation and to the adverse effects of digital exclusion.
Sexting denotes technology-mediated sexual interactions from text messages to video calls. Involving sensitive data, safer sexting necessitates privacy management. Yet, digital privacy protection in intimate relationships remains understudied. We developed a four-factorial model of privacy strategies, the Sexting Privacy Management Inventory (SPMI). The SPMI distinguishes four kinds of privacy strategies along two dimensions: behaviors individuals employ alone or in interaction with their sexting partner (personal vs. interpersonal), and behaviors before or after sexting (preventive vs. reactive). As predictors of sexting privacy protection, we tested privacy concerns, romantic rejection sensitivity, sexting frequency, and sexting frequency in interaction with loneliness. Results of an online survey in a quota-based sample of 557 sexters (49.9% male) between 16 and 40 years (M = 28.97, SD = 6.67) confirmed the four-factor structure of the SPMI and showed differential effects for the four strategies. Privacy concerns against the sexting partner (social privacy concerns) predicted all privacy strategies, while concerns about how apps handle data (institutional privacy concerns) were unrelated to privacy protection. Individuals with higher romantic rejection sensitivity did not report less privacy management. More frequent sexting was related to more employment of privacy protection behaviors if individuals asynchronously sent storable files (e.g., pictures or videos). Effects of sexting frequency on privacy strategies were independent of loneliness. Thus, safer sexting was reported by those who were concerned about their sexting partner(s) and by frequent sexters (asynchronous). Overall, our four-dimensional model could be applied to other domains of privacy management.
Young adults with mild intellectual disabilities are increasingly engaging in online social interactions. While online participation offers these young adults opportunities for connection, research on their perspectives remains scarce. Therefore, this study explores their experiences and interpretations of online social interactions. Six Dutch young adults aged 19–31 years old with mild intellectual disabilities participated in semi-structured interviews, which were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Four experiential themes were identified: 1) online connections feel important, yet offline connectedness remains essential, 2) balancing between the wish and reality of fitting in online, 3) online safety as an ongoing learning process, and 4) feeling and dealing with the dark sides of online interactions. The current study concludes that online interactions can enrich, but do not replace, offline social relationships. Nevertheless, positive online interactions are not self-evident; our findings underscore the importance of strong and supportive offline networks for fostering safer, more meaningful online contact and enhancing resilience to negative experiences.
Incivility is pervasive in the online communication landscape and has been linked to harmful consequences for individuals and the quality of public discourse. Understanding how people engage with online incivility is crucial for identifying mechanisms that may reinforce or mitigate such interactions. Although previous research investigated how incivility is experienced in different social roles such as victims, bystanders and perpetrators, most studies have examined these roles separately rather than analyzing how experiences, behaviors and attitudes toward incivility co-occur within individuals. To systematically identify and distinguish patterns of behaviors, experiences and attitudes associated with incivility, a Latent Profile Analysis was carried out, using a large-scale data set (N = 4,555) surveying young adults aged 18 to 26 (M = 21.69, SD = 2.24) from six countries (US, UK, Spain, Poland, France, Finland). Our results indicate that five profiles or types of users can be distinguished. Individuals are categorized as: perpetrator-victims; uninvolved; observers; defenders; tolerators. Additional analyses suggest that moral emotions vary systematically between these profiles. While perpetrator-victims report more pride, hate and guilt emotions when encountering incivility than any other profile, defenders indicate higher degrees of shame. By identifying distinct patterns of involvement in online incivility and their associated emotional responses, the findings provide insights into the psychological dynamics underlying uncivil online interactions and highlight potential targets for preventive interventions and future research.
Expressions of hostility are widespread online, occurring not only in explicit but even more so in implicit forms. In this study, we trace the subtle yet lasting harmful potential of two prevalent implicit forms of online hostility—fear speech and derogatory humor—by examining their perceived acceptability and legitimacy. We argue that both forms are more compatible with mainstream discourse than explicit hate and function as manifestations of symbolic violence, providing justifications that legitimize hostility and normalize extreme positions. In an experimental study with eye-tracking measures (N = 141) among predominantly young social media users in Germany (age range: 18-65; M = 23.33, SD = 8.02), we examined users’ attention to and perception of fear speech and derogatory humor on social media compared to explicit hostility. The results reveal that fear speech and derogatory humor attract similar or even greater attention than explicit hostility but differ in perception: both increase acceptance, yet fear speech elicits a heightened perceived potential to incite violence. Our findings provide insights into subtle legitimization processes and highlight broader implications for the normalization of extreme viewpoints.
This study examines the psychological mechanisms underlying digital piracy and proposes a framework that considers the perception of potential negative consequences for the individual (personal risk) and for society (moral intensity) as key factors associated with piracy behavior and rationalization. The conceptual model is tested using online survey data from two online panel samples of adults in the US (n = 625, age range = [18, 92], M = 42.44, SD = 16.43) and Slovenia (n = 514, age range = [18, 65], M = 43.51, SD = 13.14). The multi-group analysis indicates that perceived moral intensity is related to both lower participation in digital piracy and lower rationalization of this behavior in both countries. Furthermore, perceived personal risk is linked with lower likelihood of having ever engaged in piracy, but it is not significantly associated with either frequency of piracy behavior or rationalization for those who have engaged in digital piracy at least once in either country. This suggests that concern for individual consequences is not a deciding factor in determining frequency of piracy. The results also show that engaging in digital piracy is associated with cognitive rationalization strategies and with greater normalization of such behavior. These findings highlight the interplay between perceptions of potential negative consequences, digital piracy behavior, and rationalization and provide a basis for practical implications, particularly for marketers in the online entertainment industry.
Experiencing worry or perceiving risks in online environments can be linked to undesirable psychological and social outcomes, potentially incrementing the unique challenges that sexual and gender minority (SGM) youths may face in online environments. The purpose of this study is to examine differential perceptions of the frequency of worry about and perceived risk of online victimization and psychological symptoms between sexual and gender minority youths and their non-sexual and gender minority counterparts. This is a cross-sectional study conducted between 2022 and 2023. The sample of 824 Spanish youths was composed by 48.3% females, 49.5% males and 1.8% gender non-binary, aged between 12 and 18 years old (M = 14.53, SD = 1.48). Participants responded to questionnaires based on validated tools to capture the perceived risk and the frequency of worry about three forms of online victimization (cyberbullying, dating violence, and sexual harassment), as well as psychological symptoms (Symptom Checklist-90-R). The data were analysed using one-way and two-way multivariate analysis of variance. The results showed that sexual and gender minority youth reported higher perceptions of risk and worry in relation to online victimization. On the other hand, gender minority participants were found to have significantly elevated levels in all the psychological symptom domains under study. Our results underscore the relevance of understanding psychological correlates in order to develop inclusive interventions and prevention programs addressing SGM-specific online safety concerns.
Evidence suggests that lay persons can play an important role in suicide prevention. Whilst recent research has focused on the role bystanders play when people are at risk of suicide in physical environments, few studies have considered what happens when someone makes a suicidal disclosure on social media. The current study explored how bystanders respond when exposed to suicidal ideation online and what motivates this response. Thirteen UK adults aged 19 to 40 (M = 24.62, SD = 7.33) who had been a bystander at least once when someone had made a suicidal disclosure online were interviewed. Twelve identified as women, one as a man. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we generated five themes: 1) Questioning authenticity of online disclosures, 2) Distance and diffusion of responsibility, 3) Limitations of bystander support, 4) Acting with urgency and on instinct and 5) The Emotional Toll of Witnessing Suicidal Disclosures. Findings highlight the need to challenge doubt over authenticity around online disclosures, and the importance of guidelines to ensure the safety of all involved.
While online platforms increasingly prioritize diversity by offering extensive avatar customization options, it remains unclear how the avatar features that users are attracted to impact their objective diversity and whether perceived avatar diversity raises user engagement. We conducted two studies using a simulated avatar customization website to examine how user customization of avatars impacts each feature’s objective diversity. Further, drawing from the hyperpersonal model and aesthetic appreciation theory, we present users with groups of avatars that varied in levels of perceived attractiveness and diversity and assess their likelihoods of joining the platform. Study 1 analyzed 136 majority White participants (age range: 21 – 63 years; M = 37.4, SD = 10.8; 49.3% female, 47.8% male, 0.7% non-binary or third gender; 2.2% missing), and study 2 analyzed 128 non-White participants (age range: 21 – 65 years; M = 35.2, SD = 10.2; 47.7% female, 47.7% male; 4.7% missing). The results revealed two types of avatar features that were sample-dependent: (1) aesthetically-normative features, which align with widely accepted attractiveness norms, reduce objective diversity; and (2) aesthetically-expressive features, which allow creative self-expression, increase objective diversity. Regardless of the sample demographic, perceived avatar diversity amplified the positive effect of attractive avatars on users’ likelihood of joining the platform. This research demonstrates the utility of integrating the hyperpersonal model and aesthetic appreciation theory in theorizing the interaction between perceived avatar attractiveness and diversity on user engagement. It also uncovers a socio-technical feedback loop by studying objective and perceived diversity simultaneously. Actionable insights are provided to address the ethical implications of our findings.
