Reconstructing the spatiotemporal trajectories of massive ancient cities remains difficult because archaeological excavation offers temporal depth but limited spatial coverage, while lidar and other survey methods map urban form without chronological depth. Moreover, ancient urban dynamics were multidimensional and indicated by many different variables. Integrating archaeological and environmental proxies indicative of these variables into a single spatiotemporal picture (the urban trajectory) is complicated by heterogeneity in data resolution, distributional form, and measurement structure. To address these limitations, we propose a new framework centred on mapping a theoretical “latent human influence field” (LHIF). This field represents the intensity of past human activity and its effects on the proxies in the sediment archive, which can be estimated by fusing proxy data in rapidly excavated, low-impact trenches. Given sufficient sampling and temporal coregistration, an estimated LHIF promises a coherent multidimensional spacetime view of ancient urbanism. It would fill the inferential gaps between lidar, survey, and excavation by estimating not only where archaeological traces occur, but how strongly human activity shaped local sediments and landscapes — a continuous field of human activity intensity and influence. To explore the potential of this framework, we conducted a pilot study at Koh Ker (Cambodia) using magnetic susceptibility and ceramic abundance data from eight test trenches. We paired continuous magnetic susceptibility scans with ceramic abundance data and fitted a Bayesian hierarchical latent-variable model that treats both proxies as noisy observations of the shared LHIF. This model synthesizes heterogeneous data channels within a unified causal framework and is fully extensible to additional sedimentary proxies, with potential application across archaeological site types and regions.
Oxygen isotope (δ18O) analysis of carbonate-bearing hydroxyapatite from human dental enamel is widely used in archaeological studies because it reflects the isotopic composition of ingested water. However, certain postmortem alteration processes may affect the δ18O signatures of the carbonate (δ18Oc) and/or the phosphate (δ18Op) components. This study investigates the diagenetic changes to human dental enamel samples from two Hungarian archaeological sites using oxygen isotope measurements, as well as X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Although crystallinity changes are observed, the primary causes of disequilibrium between δ18Oc and δ18Op appears to be the incorporation of secondary carbonate and the isotopic exchange between enamel carbonate and soil water. FTIR peak-area ratios proved to be more sensitive indicators of alteration than peak intensities. The comparison of pre-treated and untreated samples confirms that the chemical treatment of dental enamel can amplify disequilibrium δ18O shifts in the carbonate component when alteration is present. The results of combined phosphate and carbonate δ18O analyses support the method of δ18Oc analysis without enamel pre-treatment to remove organic content. These findings emphasise the importance of both sample preparation procedures and structural analyses of dental enamel prior to the interpretation of isotopic data.
The combined analysis of calcium, stable and radiogenic strontium isotopic compositions (δ44Ca/42Ca, δ88Sr/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr, respectively) and rare earth elements (REE) provides information for the reconstruction of diet, mobility, and associated diagenetic status of the studied tissue in bioarchaeological studies. However, their combined application is often limited by complex multi-step chromatographic procedures, reliance on automated systems, large sample requirements, and high analytical costs. Here, we present a simplified, non-automated one-step chromatographic protocol based on DGA resin that enables the sequential separation of Sr, Ca and REE from a single sample aliquot for further isotope analyses. The method was validated using six certified reference materials representing organic and inorganic matrices relevant to biological, geological, and environmental materials applicable to bioarchaeological studies. Chromatographic elution profiles demonstrate efficient and reproducible separation of matrix elements, Sr, Ca and REE, with quantitative elemental recoveries and minimal cross-contamination. The resulting δ44Ca/42Ca, δ88Sr/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr values are in excellent agreement with published reference data, confirming the accuracy of the protocol. This procedure requires no automated equipment, uses a reusable resin, a limited number of acids, and compared to multi-step chromatographic techniques, reduces chemical handling and processing time. By maximizing the analytical information obtained from limited material, this affordable and accessible protocol facilitates integrated isotopic investigations of diet, mobility, and preservation in bioarchaeology, and is readily applicable to other fields of study in Earth and environmental sciences.
Organic residue analysis has been used to study unglazed ceramic vessels and, more recently, glazed coarse/semi-refined earthenwares. However, GC-MS has not been used to study residues from glazed refined earthenwares, which often dominate ceramic assemblages from 18th-to 20th-century sites. This article presents findings from the first residue study of refined earthenware, which was conducted on 115 sherds from 111 late-18th to mid-19th-century tea and tableware vessels from Frederick County, Virginia (USA). Our results show that while lipid concentrations are generally low (<100 μg lipid per gram of ceramic), meaningful concentrations of organic residues were present in 54% of samples. The identified lipids include a wider range of compounds than are typically identified in absorbed residue analyses, including unsaturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty alcohols, and cholesterol. While our results are preliminary, significant patterning was seen in lipid concentrations. Differences were also seen between various vessel forms (i.e., mugs vs. teacups) and between different types of sites (i.e., enslaved Black households vs. free white households), hinting at the role refined earthenware played in various local foodways. As a result, we argue that GC-MS analysis of refined earthenware vessels offers the potential to address a variety of questions about 18th- and 19th-century foodways, and we provide several recommendations for other researchers wanting to study residues from these ceramics.
Rock art is the physical evidence of early human symbolism, distributed across the globe as a consequence of human dispersal. In this study, we analyzed the Huashan rock art, which contains more than 80 sites and is in good condition. Created at least 2000 years ago, it is located in Guangxi, southern China, an extremely hot and humid subtropical monsoon zone. The process for producing the rock art and how they have survived the weathering remain mysteries. Rock art fragments from three sites in the Huashan rock art belt were collected and studied. They were analyzed using Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and proteomics to determine their structure and mineral and organic composition. Our study indicates that red clay rich in nano-hematite was used as the pigment, and a composite mortar made from lime and blood served as the binder in the rock art. Biomineralized calcium carbonate induced by blood proteins tightly encapsulates nano-hematite and strongly bonds to the limestone. This stable organic-inorganic composite bonding system reveals the complex technological processes used by the creators and explains why the Huashan rock art has survived so well in such challenging conditions for over two millennia. The blood used may come from the females who gave birth, which could be linked to the worship of female fertility of the creators' community, a matriarchal fisher-hunter-gatherer society. These findings provide new insights into the creation of prehistoric rock art, showing that it was a technically intensive project rather than a labor-intensive one.
This article reassesses the political economy of the Late Neolithic Liangzhu Site Complex through an integrated analysis of pottery production and circulation. Liangzhu is frequently portrayed as an early state characterized by centralized elite control over specialized craft industries, particularly jade and black pottery. To evaluate this model, we combine macro-, meso-, and micro-level analysis of complete vessels and sherd assemblages, focusing on forming techniques, paste recipes, and geochemical variability. Compositional data obtained through portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), supported by mineralogical observations, are analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and clustering analysis to identify compositional groups and assess their spatial distributions across settlement tiers. The results show that black and non–black pottery share overlapping yet equally diverse craft traditions, with no clear evidence of standardized production or exclusive specialization. Compositional groups are distributed across multiple settlement zones rather than concentrated in central locations, and their spatial patterns do not follow a simple distance-decay model. These findings complicate a model of tightly centralized production and redistribution of black pottery as a special category from non-black pottery.
This paper presents compositional results and typological distinctions for glass bangle debris collected from the Yemeni workshop of Kawd am-Saila (c. 14th–16th centuries) in the province of Aden, and small contemporary collections from nearby al-Karf Road and neighbouring Somaliland held in the British Museum. These bangle fragments share the same typological designs and colour repertoires, consistent with export from Yemen to the Horn of Africa. Archaeochemical analyses were undertaken using SEM-EDX at the British Museum and LA-ICP-MS at CNRS Orléans and the UCL Institute of Archaeology. This study applies an established geochemical framework to identify a new, internally coherent category of glass termed ‘KAS’, characterised by distinct silica and plant-ash sources most likely associated with the region of Aden, consistent with archaeological indications of secondary production at the Kawd am-Saila workshop. The comparative collections were also found to be primarily of this previously undocumented ‘KAS’ composition and the few fragments with typological differences corresponded to other established regional glass groupings.KAS is a soda-lime-silica plant-ash glass most notable for elevated alumina concentrations (c. >4 wt% Al2O3), placing it within the so-called ‘v-Na-Al’ compositional category, a characteristic often associated with Central Asian glass (c. 9th–17th centuries). This study defines the key compositional characteristics of KAS, establishing a new categorisation for a potential South Arabian glass production zone by highlighting notable differences from contemporary Central Asian glasses. Identification of this proposed new composition contributes to a better understanding of plant-ash glasses, offering a new regional reference point for Islamic glass studies. The findings also provide insights into production techniques, compositional variability and circulation patterns of glass bangles across the western Indian Ocean during the medieval to early modern period.
While tracing the geological provenance of Maya jadeitite-jade is key to understanding Mesoamerican exchange and extraction, distinguishing between the north (NMM) and south (SMM) Motagua sources presents significant challenges. This difficulty is due to shared mineralogical traits and the limitations of applying bulk whole rock trace element determination to invaluable archaeological objects. This study proposes an integrated statistical framework combining existing whole rock reference data with new Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) trace element measurements. We characterized 39 geological reference samples from both NMM and SMM, as well as 16 archaeological fragments from seven Maya sites. Despite complex multi-generation growth and local geochemical heterogeneities revealed by cathodoluminescence and LA-ICP-MS, a Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) model successfully discriminated between NMM and SMM sources 91.4% accuracy using eleven key trace elements (Th, Zn, La, Hf, Lu, Ce, Ni, Tm, Yb, Sr and Pr). Application of this model to archaeological samples suggests a predominant exploitation of NMM sources across the Maya Highlands, Lowlands, and Pacific coast. This approach validates LA-ICP-MS as a robust tool for jade provenance studies, overcoming the biases of accessory minerals inherent in whole rock analyses and offering a transferable strategy for archaeometric research.
Indigenous Australians and First Peoples around the world use ochre as their ancestors have for tens of thousands of years and continue to shape contemporary uses of pigment in rock art, pigment-treated objects, and in ceremonial use. Provenance studies are a key approach to answer questions on ochre source attribution and cultural exchange of this significant material in the archaeological past. Ochre source sites (geological formations) are inherently complex, and each have their unique geological and cultural history which can be characterized as a unique site ‘fingerprint’. However, If the factors around intra-site variation over time are not addressed adequately, further conclusions on the ochre source ‘fingerprint’ characterization, archaeological material provenance, and cultural use may potentially be biased and therefore affect the archaeological interpretations. This manuscript addresses key questions around the relationship of intra-site variability and ochre provenance via multi-proxy analysis of Ma:ko, an Australian Aboriginal cultural sedimentary ochre source. The results provide insight into understanding the potential effects on ochre fingerprint due to intra-site variation, sampling and seasonality, with intra-site variation causing more potential variation on the geochemical and mineralogical fingerprint than seasonality. This study also provides a best practice approach for examining intra-site implications for provenance, archaeological interpretation, and source use through time for ochre sites globally.
Roman writers provide detailed accounts of viticulture practices in ancient Mediterranean civilisations. While records describe varieties, methods of vine management, and consumption traditions, major questions remain about how varieties were spread and whether viticulture traditions were impacted during Roman expansion. At the site of Cetamura del Chianti (Siena, Tuscany), waterlogged grape seeds from two wells dated between ca. 300 BCE and ca. 1200 CE provided an opportunity to integrate multiple methodologies to investigate Etruscan and Roman viticulture. Genetic testing of 80 grape seeds revealed that the deepest parts of the wells were associated with higher endogenous DNA content, and complementary near-infrared spectroscopy found patterns with well-preserved pips. Both genome-wide DNA data and geometric morphometric analysis indicated that most seeds originated from domesticated vines associated with winemaking, however, the latter suggested that some seeds with little DNA may derive from wild vines. Following enrichment of genetic markers, relatedness analyses demonstrated links to the past and present: one Cetamura seed was closely related to a Roman seed from Mont Ferrier in France while another pip had affinity to the modern Hungarian variety ‘Baratcsuha szurke’. Within the wells, genetic data and radiocarbon dating revealed continuity from Etruscan to Roman periods, with over a quarter of the seeds belonging to one clonal variety maintained for centuries. Furthermore, genetic markers associated with anthocyanin content indicated the dominant clonal variety likely produced white berries; however, red wine was presumably not unknown at Cetamura, as two other pips were consistent with a dark berry phenotype.
Burned lithic artifacts are among the most reliable proxies for prehistoric fire use in the archaeological record, yet the roles of raw material variability and artifact size (volume) in the probability of thermal alteration remain unclear. The main objective of this study is to examine how raw material type and artifact size influence the probability and intensity of thermal alteration, challenging the temperature–volume interaction model that predicts larger artifacts alter more rapidly at higher temperatures. We conducted a series of controlled heat-fracture experiments using three raw materials (flint, quartzite, and basalt), each shaped into standardized volumes. Samples were exposed to a range of temperatures, and thermal responses were assessed using a Variable Inc. Spectro 1 Pro colorimeter to quantify colorimetric change alongside an ordinal scoring system to classify macroscopic alterations. Our results show that the initiation of heat fracture is primarily driven by raw material properties and both raw material and temperature are the primary predictors of thermal alteration, whereas artifact size has a comparatively minor and inconsistent effect. Flint exhibited rapid and severe heat fracture at higher temperatures across all volumes, quartzite showed gradual and progressive alteration, particularly at larger volumes, whereas basalt remained resistant to macroscopic changes. To demonstrate the application of the experimental reference collection to archaeological materials, we also analyzed burned lithic assemblages, predominantly composed of flint, from several Eurasian sites. The archaeological results indicate that larger artifacts accumulate frequent heat fracture (potlids), suggesting a direct exposure to high heat at the archaeological sites.
Sophisticated millet-pig agriculture significantly influenced cultural expansion and early social complexity in the Yellow River Valley during the Neolithic period. However, tempo and role of millet-pig agriculture in shaping early social complexity on the Chinese Loess Plateau remain poorly constrained, largely due to the absence of an effective system for identifying and quantifying domestic pigs. Here we develop a comprehensive system for identifying domestic pigs that combines K-means clustering of pig collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope data, with the optimal number of clusters determined using Within-cluster Sum of Squares (WSS), newly obtained radiocarbon dates, systematic zooarchaeological evidence, and archaeological contextual information from four sites in the western Loess Plateau. By cross-checking the results of our improved identification method with multiple sources of evidence, we reconstruct a three-step intensification of the millet-pig agricultural system in the Neolithic western Loess Plateau, identified through changes in crop structure, pig management, and isotopic evidence. A synthesis of Neolithic sites across the Chinese Loess Plateau suggests that asynchronous cultural expansion and socially complex processes in the western and eastern Loess Plateau were likely influenced by differences in the timing at which sophisticated millet-pig agricultural system emerged, under contrasting regional natural and social conditions. This study elucidates the trajectory of the millet-pig agricultural system in the Chinese Loess Plateau and demonstrates its pivotal role as part of the cultural expansion witnessed during the Neolithic period.
The bow is among the most widespread and enduring technologies in the archaeological record, yet comparative analyses of different bow forms have remained largely descriptive and typological. This has limited functional interpretation and has often conflated material complexity with mechanical performance. Here we introduce a reduced-order dynamical model that provides a unified mechanical framework for comparing archaeologically distinct bow archetypes on a common basis. Bows are represented as coupled torsional springs, and identical elastic and string properties are imposed across all designs to define a controlled geometric baseline that isolates the mechanical role of form. The framework is applied to three well-documented archaeological archetypes: a Mesolithic European self-bow, a Scythian composite recurve, and the Japanese asymmetric longbow (Yumi). For each case, we quantify draw-force relations, elastic energy storage, static efficiency, and arrow launch velocity. The results demonstrate that distinct and stable performance regimes emerge from geometry alone. Self-bows exhibit comparatively smooth force-draw behavior and robust energy accumulation; recurved bows emphasize elevated early leverage and compact energy storage; and asymmetric designs achieve high terminal energy with configuration-dependent efficiency. These findings indicate that major bow traditions are best understood as alternative mechanical solutions shaped by geometric trade-offs rather than as stages in a linear, material-driven progression. By establishing a quantitative, geometry-focused null model, this study provides a new baseline for functional interpretation, experimental replication, and comparative analysis of ancient bow technologies in archaeological research.
Dogs were among the most important and frequently used animals in mortuary and ritual activities during the Shang period (ca. 1600-1046 BCE). While previous work has highlighted the emergence of specialized dog husbandry to meet growing ritual demand at Yinxu, the Shang capital, little is known about how such systems were operated at regional Shang centers. This study is among the very first attempts to apply three-dimensional geometric morphometrics (3D GMM) to mandibular remains from the Shang site of Daxinzhuang, Shandong Province, to investigate mortuary dog selection and management strategies. Our results show that adult or sub-adult individuals generally predominated in the mortuary assemblage. Mortuary dogs also exhibit significantly smaller and more uniform mandibles than midden dogs and tend to show reduced morphological variability. These patterns suggest non-random selection in mortuary contexts and are consistent with intensified management practices associated with ritual use, although they do not by themselves demonstrate a distinct breeding population or controlled husbandry regime. By embedding zooarchaeological interpretations within the framework of ritual economy and materialized power, we contend that dog bodies at Daxinzhuang may have been shaped by patterned selection and management practices that enabled their deployment as ritual media. This contributes new insights into the organization of animal management and the material foundations of ritual power in Shang communities.
A systematic investigation of the ceramic body, glaze, and decorative layers of Changsha kiln painted wares was carried out using XRF, thermal expansion analysis, SEM, Raman spectroscopy, and experimental firing simulations. The results show that Changsha kiln painted ceramics did not follow a single firing scheme. Most coarsely painted wares were produced through a single high-temperature firing with overglaze decoration, whereas some finely decorated brown-and-green wares were manufactured through a two-stage high-temperature process involving pigment firing followed by glaze firing. Although pigments were applied before glazing, no clear pigment-glaze boundary typical of underglaze decoration is observed, which may be related to the application of a thin glaze-like layer prior to decoration. These findings indicate that multiple firing pathways coexisted at the Changsha kiln. This multi-stage firing practice represents a previously overlooked intermediate technological pathway between undifferentiated single-stage firing and fully developed multi-stage firing systems, reflecting the transitional and exploratory nature of Tang high-temperature painted ceramics.
Ritual and ceremony, materialized through offerings and sacrifices, were integral to the social and political fabric of early complex societies. However, direct biomolecular evidence of such practices is exceedingly rare, limiting our understanding of how ancient communities orchestrated and conceptualized ceremonial activities. Here, we apply an integrated suite of biochemical methods-elemental, lipid, and especially proteomic analyses-to newly excavated sacrificial pits at Sanxingdui (ca. 1200-1000 BC), a major Bronze Age center in Southwest China. Our results identify proteins derived from ruminants of the Bovidae family (predominantly Bovinae subfamily, consistent with cattle-like taxa). These findings confirm that animal sacrifice accompanied the ritual deposition of bronze, jade, and ivory artifacts. This biomolecular evidence situates Sanxingdui's ceremonies within a broader sphere of shared ritual traditions across Bronze Age China, echoing contemporaneous Shang practices in the Central Plains. By demonstrating how proteomic approaches can reveal nuanced traces of perishable and symbolic components of ancient rites, this study offers a direct molecular window into ritual life, political authority, and cultural exchange. In doing so, it highlights the potential of molecular archaeology to illuminate the intangible foundations of social complexity, ideological convergence, and cross-cultural interaction in early civilizations.
Travertine, a secondary calcite deposit formed in tectonically and geothermally active regions of the Tibetan Plateau, preserves diverse environmental signals, including evidence of past human activity. The Quesang site contains prehistoric human hand- and footprint impressions whose ages have long been debated. Here, we applied isothermal thermoluminescence dating to travertine samples, evaluating the reliability of the equivalent dose measurements and the influence of erosion on dose rate estimates. Electron spin resonance and U-Th dating were also used for cross-validation. Our results show that isothermal thermoluminescence dating provides robust and reliable ages, confirming the prehistoric origin of the hand- and footprints and resolving previous chronological controversies. Beyond Quesang, isothermal thermoluminescence dating offers a promising approach for dating human traces in travertine and other carbonate deposits, providing new insights into the timing and distribution of early human presence on the Tibetan Plateau.
