Sevoflurane significantly enhanced ion permeability across a bilayer lipid membrane (BLM). It is a typical inhalational anesthetic with a dielectric constant (8.1) higher than that inside the BLM (≈2.0). An increase (1.04 times) in the inner dielectric constant of the BLM is proposed to result from the accumulation of sevoflurane within the membrane. This increase is responsible for the facilitation of ion transport by enhancing the distribution coefficient of the electrolyte ions (17.6 times).
The study of the electrocatalytic performance of nano‐metal oxides for H 2 O 2 has become a hot topic in the discipline of bioelectrochemical sensors in recent decades. MoO 3 micro‐nanomaterial was synthesized via a one‐step pyrolysis process under an air atmosphere at 500 °C through the [(HL) 2 (Mo 4 O 13 )] 2 ·H 2 O[HL = N‐(pyridin‐3‐ylmethyl)pyridine‐3‐amine] single‐crystal precursor. The constructed electrode MoO 3 /GCE exhibited excellent electrocatalytic properties for H 2 O 2 . The MoO 3 /GCE exhibits outstanding electrocatalytic behavior toward H 2 O 2 with remarkable sensitivity of 321 μA·mM −1 ·cm −2 and a broad detection range of 0.98 μM–4.85 mM. The limit of detection (LOD) is 0.31 μM. Meanwhile, this sensor also demonstrated excellent stability, repeatability, and interference resistance performance when detecting H 2 O 2 . Furthermore, this sensor successfully detected H 2 O 2 in human serum, indicating that the MoO 3 material possesses notable application in the biological field.
Novel approaches for improving the sensitivity, specificity, and flexibility of evidence analysis techniques have become feasible through integrating the two‐dimensional (2D) nanomaterials with forensic science. This review aims to comprehensively examine the structural properties of MXene‐based nanocomposites and assess their capabilities across four major forensic domains: drug sensing, DNA biosensing, latent fingerprint visualization, and biomarker identification. In addition, owing to its remarkable surface‐to‐volume ratio, adaptable chemical composition of surface, and electrical conductivity, MXenes have emerged as widely recognized nanomaterials. These properties have enabled the development of highly effective sensing platforms for multiple forensic applications, including drug residue analysis, DNA biosensing, latent fingerprint detection, and biomarker monitoring. A systematic review of peer‐reviewed literature published between 2018 and 2025 was conducted, analyzing MXene synthesis strategies (including top‐down HF etching and bottom‐up chemical vapor deposition), nanocomposite formulations (MXene‐polymer, MXene‐metal, and MXene‐carbon hybrids), and their performance metrics in electrochemical, fluorescence‐based, and SERS‐based detection platforms. Recent advancements have demonstrated the accuracy of MXene‐based electrochemical biosensing devices in detecting proteins and biomarkers—such as thrombin—as well as miRNAs and drugs, even within complex biological matrices. Key findings reveal that MXene‐based composites achieve detection limits ranging from sub‐nanomolar to low‐nanogram‐per‐milliliter levels for illicit drugs in biofluids, while MXene‐DNA hybrid hydrogels enable picomolar thrombin detection suitable for blood‐derived forensic samples. MXene nanocomposites coupled with fluorescent nanosheets also demonstrate superior latent fingerprint contrast on challenging substrates, including glass, metal, and plastic. In addition, the signal transition stability of portable forensic sensors has been improved using MXene–DNA hydrogels and MXene polymer composites. Furthermore, studies employing turn‐on fluorescence biosensors and MXene‐functionalized immunosensors demonstrate their versatility in fast and accurate sensing of genetic material and synthetic cannabinoids. Carbon‐based nanomaterials such as carbon dots and graphene further support these efforts by enabling advanced forensic imaging techniques, particularly for enhancing latent fingerprint improvements and SERS‐based analyte detections. This review highlights the recent developments in the applications of MXenes in forensic science, focusing on their ability to transform future analytical platforms. The evidence presented demonstrates that MXene‐based platforms offer superior sensitivity, portability, and selectivity compared to conventional forensic techniques, underscoring their transformative potential for next‐generation on‐site forensic analysis. The unique potential of MXenes to enable swift, sensitive, and field‐deployable diagnostic tools for forensic investigations has increased the volume for research in this domain.
Synthesis at low temperature and interface characteristics in electrocatalysis for nanocomposites are alternative challenge up to date. A SrO nanoparticles (NPs)/g‐C 3 N 4 nanosheets (SrO/ng‐C 3 N 4 ) composite was prepared by a feasible one‐pot synthesis at 80 °C without post‐sintering, where SrO NPs (with diameters of 20 ∼ 50 nm) were loaded onto ng‐C 3 N 4 nanosheets to form an efficient electrocatalyst. By the aid of XPS and FT‐IR analysis, it confirms that SrO NPs were anchored in proximity to the s‐triazine units of ng‐C 3 N 4 via SrN bonds. Based on the surface charge characteristics, the electrostatic adsorption between SrO/ng‐C 3 N 4 and vanillin as a catalysant was verified. C 7 H 5 O 2 − anions after the hydrolyzation and ionization of vanillin in PBS solution were adsorbed on the surface of positively charged SrO/ng‐C 3 N 4 before electro‐oxidation. The electrocatalytically active centers, i.e., oxygen vacancies on the surface of SrO NPs, facilitate in the oxidation of vanillin, and further the overpotential of the electrocatalyst by SrO/ng‐C 3 N 4 toward vanillin is reduced. A detail eletro‐oxidation process of vanillin was identified by UV–vis spectra and differential pulse voltammetry analysis. Based on the Laviron equation, two electrons transfer from vanillin during the oxidation reaction, and speculates the reaction mechanism. Under optimal conditions, vanillin oxidation current is linear to its concentration in the range of 2.0 × 10 −8 to 1.4 × 10 −5 M, with a detection limit of 6.7 nM (S/N = 3). The limit value complies with the requirements of the World Health Organization and the Chinese Health Standard. As‐prepared sensor applied for the quantification of vanillin in milk samples is long‐term stable, selective, and feasible.
A heterostructured Ni@Ni 3 N/NCNTs electrocatalyst was rationally designed via a MOF‐derived strategy combined with controlled surface nitridation to achieve highly efficient nonenzymatic glucose sensing. In this architecture, metallic Ni nanoparticles anchored on a three‐dimensional N‐doped carbon nanotube framework were selectively converted into a thin Ni 3 N surface layer, forming abundant Ni/Ni 3 N heterointerfaces while preserving a conductive Ni core. Electrochemical studies reveal that the engineered heterointerfaces significantly reduce charge‐transfer resistance and increase electrochemically active surface area, thereby promoting the generation of NiOOH species and facilitating glucose oxidation. As a result, the Ni@Ni 3 N/NCNTs electrode exhibits a high sensitivity of 685.07 μA mM −1 cm −2 , a low detection limit of 0.34 μM, and a wide linear range of 1–7000 μM for nonenzymatic glucose detection. Furthermore, integration with a smartphone‐enabled electrochemical platform enables portable and real‐time glucose analysis, demonstrating the strong potential of this surface‐engineered heterostructure for practical portable sensing applications.
Efficient ultrathin honeycomb-like nanosheets of alpha-MnO2 hollandite, decorated on carbon cloth (CC), were successfully synthesized by a one-pot hydrothermal method. Leveraging the unique tunnel articulated morphology of alpha-MnO2, the electrode material exhibited impressive electrochemical performance, achieving a high specific capacitance of 434.46 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1, exceptional higher value than the previously reports till date, along with exceptional rate capability and excellent stability, evidenced by only 13.1% decay in capacitance after 10 000 cycles at 10 A g-1. The phase of the synthesized material was confirmed through XRD and XPS analyses. TEM and HR-TEM imaging revealed the desirable ultrathin nature of the MnO2 nanosheets on the carbon substrate. When applied in an asymmetric supercapacitor device, the alpha-MnO2@CC electrode demonstrated an extended potential window of up to 2.0 V, delivering a remarkable energy density of 57 Wh kg-1 at a power density of 1000 W kg-1. Notably, it maintained an energy density of 16 Wh kg-1 even at a high-power density of 20 000 W kg-1. Consequently, the fabricated cell alpha-MnO2@CC//AC demonstrates outstanding electrochemical performance, positioning it as a highly promising candidate for next-generation supercapacitor applications.
Nitric oxide (NO), nitrite, nitrate, and its stable metabolite 3‐nitrotyrosine are important biomarkers for iNOS‐mediated oncogenic signaling. Therefore, accurate critical analysis needs sensitive and environmentally friendly analytical methodologies. Electrochemical sensors, fluorescence probes, surface‐enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanosensors, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), paper‐based microfluidic devices (μPADs), metal‐organic framework (MOF) probes, photoelectrochemical biosensors, nano‐ZnO amperometric sensors, AI‐assisted colorimetric systems, and wearable electrochemical electrodes are some of these analytical platforms. The detection limits reported for the investigated systems depend on the target analyte and sensing technology, ranging from subnanomolar concentrations (e.g., around 0.2 nM for electrochemical sensors of 3‐nitrotyrosine) to micromolar levels (approximately 0.8 μM for smartphone colorimetric nitrite assays). Using the AGREE, GAPI, and NEMI metrics to assess greenness indicates a strong reduction of solvent consumption and analytical waste when compared with traditional HPLC‐UV and Griess spectrophotometry. We describe the working mechanisms of each platform: direct electro‐oxidation, photo‐induced charge–transfer, cavity imprinting, fluorescence quenching/enhancement, and plasmonic near‐field enhancement. Emerging approaches, such as AI‐assisted multiplexed detection, CRISPR‐based biosensors, organ‐on‐chip devices, and biodegradable paper, represent credible routes toward point‐of‐need deployment. Taken together, performance and sustainability data from four domains, pharmaceutical, environmental, food safety, and forensic chemistry, confirm that sensitive, eco‐friendly point‐of‐need nitric oxide detection is achievable in both laboratory and resource‐constrained settings.
The electrogenic performance of anaerobe‐tolerant Priestia aryabhattai AAS003 in dual‐chamber microbial fuel cells (MFCs) treating real food‐processing wastewater was comparatively evaluated under anaerobic and aerobic anode conditions. Both systems were operated for 10 days with 1 g/L inoculum in a closed circuit (1000 Ω). The aerobic MFC achieved a substantially higher maximum power density (59.5 ± 6.4 mW/m 2 at 315 ± 23 mA/m 2 ) than the anaerobic system (6.6 ± 0.9 mW/m 2 at 105 ± 14 mA/m 2 ), alongside improved Coulombic efficiency (54.9% ± 2.4% vs. 23.8% ± 1.3%) and comparable COD removal (∼27% vs. ∼21%). Electrochemical analyses, that is, cyclic voltammetry and EIS with equivalent circuit modeling, indicated enhanced charge transfer and biofilm electroactivity under aerobic conditions. Proton flux and oxygen crossover measurements further revealed efficient proton migration and partial oxygen diffusion, promoting biofilm stratification and synergistic aerobic respiration–extracellular electron transfer interactions. The findings highlight the capability of P . aryabhattai to sustain high electrogenic performance across redox regimes in complex wastewater systems.
Metabolites function as real‐time indicators of physiological state, yet their rapid and precise quantification remains challenging due to chemical diversity and dynamic fluctuations. Nanopore sensing addresses these challenges by providing label‐free, single‐molecule electrical detection with high sensitivity and temporal resolution. This review systematically examines sensing strategies—from carbohydrates to neurotransmitter metabolites—for key metabolite classes. We evaluate analytical performance (sensitivity, limits of detection, temporal resolution) and compatibility with complex biofluids, chart the field's progression from single‐analyte detection toward multiplexed metabolomics, and discuss sensor stability and engineering steps required to translate proof‐of‐concept platforms into reproducible assays for clinical diagnostics and metabolic monitoring.
Nanozymes have attracted considerable attention as a promising class of artificial enzymes with significant development potential in recent years. Herein, a nitrogen‐doped hollow porous carbon nanocomposite embedded with Co 3 O 4 nanoparticles (Co 3 O 4 ‐HPNC) was successfully synthesized through the controlled carbonization and subsequent slow oxidation of bimetallic Co/Zn zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs). The Co 3 O 4 ‐HPNC features a hollow architecture conposed of numerous small nanoparticles, forming a porous flocculent morphology that enhances mass transport efficiency. It exhibited remarkable peroxidase‐like activity, catalyzing the oxidation of colorless 3,3 ′ , 5,5 ′ ‐tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to blue oxidized TMB (oxTMB) in the presence of H 2 O 2 . This reaction was driven by the generation of hydroxyl radicals (·OH), as confirmed by fluorescence and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) results. Notably, the oxidization process was significantly inhibited by the addition of L‐cysteine (L‐Cys), leading to a visible fading of the blue color and a corresponding decrease in UV–vis absorbance. Moreover, Co 3 O 4 ‐HPNC demonstrated good selectivity and strong anti‐interference capability toward L‐Cys detection. Based on these findings, a simple and effective colorimetric method was developed for quantifying L‐Cys with a linear range of 1–50 μM and a detection limit of 0.13 μM (S/N = 3). This Co 3 O 4 ‐HPNC‐based colorimetric platform holds significant potential for applications in biosensors and clinic diagnostics.
In this work, laser‐induced technology was utilized to convert polyimide films coated on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates into laser‐induced graphene (LIG), thereby fabricating LIG/ITO electrodes. A 1 mg/mL graphdiyne (GDY) dispersion was subsequently deposited on the LIG/ITO surface through a drop‐casting strategy to prepare nanoscaled GDY/LIG/ITO electrochemical electrodes. The morphology and structural properties of the composite were systematically characterized by scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. The analytical results demonstrated that GDY was uniformly immobilized on the surface of LIG to form a homogeneous composite film. Owing to the distinctive few‐layer GDY/LIG heterostructure, the optimized electrode exhibited an enlarged electrochemically active surface area and accelerated charge transfer efficiency. Accordingly, the sensor delivered excellent detection performance toward dopamine (DA), possessing a wide linear range of 1–1000 μM and a low limit of detection of 0.33 μM. Moreover, the fabricated sensor was successfully applied for the quantitative detection of DA hydrochloride injection samples, achieving acceptable recoveries ranging from 98.5% to 100.9%. These results verify that the GDY/LIG electrode possesses great potential for practical analytical applications.
Low‐cost, highly active and durable bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts are critical for the commercial development of rechargeable zinc–air batteries (ZABs). Here, we report a trimetallic Fe/Co/Zn codoped nitrogen carbon catalyst (Fe 1 ‐CoZnNC‐800) derived from a bud‐like zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF‐12@ZIF‐11) obtained via the incorporation of Fe 2+ into the parent MOF. Pyrolysis at 800°C transforms the precursor into an open, flower‐like carbon architecture that exposes abundant M–N x (M = Fe, Co) active sites while retaining a hierarchical meso‐/macropore network (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, BET ≈320 m 2 g − 1 ). In 0.1 M KOH, Fe 1 –CoZnNC‐800 delivers a half‐wave potential of 0.81 V for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and an oxygen evolution reaction (OER) overpotential of 360 mV at 10 mA cm −2 , outperforming most nonprecious benchmarks with robust stability and good methanol tolerance. When integrated into a ZAB air cathode, Fe 1 –CoZnNC‐800 affords a peak power density of 394 mW cm −2 and sustains stable charge/discharge cycling for 275 h at 10 mA cm −2 without obvious voltage fade, demonstrating its potential as a platinum‐free bifunctional cathode for next‐generation metal–air batteries.
An electrochemical method based on a poly(Allura Red AC)-modified glassy carbon electrode was developed for the determination of terazosin hydrochloride. The sensing platform was fabricated by electropolymerization, resulting in a stable and electroactive polymer film. The electrochemical behavior of terazosin hydrochloride and its oxidation mechanism were investigated by cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse adsorptive stripping voltammetry. Mechanistic studies based on pH dependence and Laviron analysis indicated a two-electron, one-proton oxidation process governed by adsorption-controlled kinetics. Under optimized conditions, the proposed sensor exhibited a wide linear dynamic range of 0.04-8.0 & micro;M and a low detection limit of 3.48 & times; 10-3 & micro;M. The method demonstrated high precision, with intraday and inter-day relative standard deviation values below 1.1%. Its practical applicability was demonstrated by the determination of terazosin hydrochloride in commercial tablet formulations and spiked human serum samples, with recovery values close to 100%. Overall, the results indicate that the poly(Allura Red AC)-modified electrode offers a straightforward electropolymerization-based approach with satisfactory analytical performance for terazosin hydrochloride determination in pharmaceutical and biologically relevant samples.
In the present study, a template‐directed synthesis method was developed to fabricate a porous cobalt‐nitrogen‐carbon electrocatalyst (porous Co/N/C‐2). The new material is one example among many non‐precious metals that are promising for oxygen evolution/reduction reactions (OER/ORR), two key reactions in clean renewable energy technologies. In testing the OER activity, we found that at a current density of 10 mA cm −2 , this electrocatalyst requires only 350 mV overpotential, with a Tafel slope value of 86.58 mV dec −1 . The above electrocatalytic data are superior to most reported Co/N/C‐based catalysts, as well as comparable with those for traditional RuO 2 , which is the standard precious metal catalyst for OER application. Similarly, good results are achieved in terms of the electrocatalytic activity for the ORR. Indeed, less than 5% of H 2 O 2 is detected during the experiment, suggesting that a major portion of the reaction takes place via a highly effective (four‐electron) mechanism. The catalyst exhibits a preferential four‐electron (4e − ) reduction pathway, with an electron‐transfer number (n) of 3.92. The experimental data show excellent electrocatalytic activity, with an onset current density of 5.8 mA cm −2 and a half‐wave potential of 0.87 V versus RHE (values that we compare against traditional Pt/C samples). This work provides an accessible route to prepare low‐cost, efficient metal‐nitrogen‐carbon electrocatalysts, in view of the potential they offer in applications such as fuel cells or metal‐air batteries.
Due to their non‐biodegradable nature and significant risks to human health and environmental safety, the rapid and accurate detection of heavy metal ions (HMIs) is essential. While traditional analytical techniques have high sensitivity, they are often expensive, time‐consuming, and inadequate for monitoring in real time or on‐site. The latter is generally not effective. EC sensors have become more viable options due to their low cost, portability, rapid response, and high sensitivity. Two‐dimensional nanomaterials and other developments in electrode materials have greatly enhanced the analytical capabilities of these sensing platforms. In this review, a detailed analysis of recent developments in MXene‐based electrochemical sensors for the detection of HMI is presented reported between 2020 and 2026. This paper highlights the importance of material engineering approaches such as surface functionalization, composite formation and structural design but also emphasizes the underlying sensing mechanisms. The analytical performance of these sensors, including their sensitivity and selectivity, detection limits, or real‐sample applicability, is critically discussed. In addition, the main issues concerning MXene restacking, long‐term stability and interference effects in complex matrices are examined.
Diabetes management requires accurate, continuous monitoring of glucose levels to reduce complications and improve clinical outcomes. Conventional finger‐prick methods are invasive and fail to capture dynamic glycemic fluctuations. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) biosensors have emerged as a transformative solution, enabling real‐time, minimally or noninvasive glucose tracking with improved patient compliance. The literature was systematically searched across PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, emphasizing recent innovations, fabrication strategies, and clinical applicability. Findings highlight future prospects of CGM biosensors in advancing diabetes care. This review provides a critical synthesis of recent advances in CGM technologies, with a particular focus on sensor transduction mechanisms, algorithm‐driven data interpretation, and the transition toward hybrid closed‐loop (artificial pancreas) systems . We compare invasive, minimally invasive, and noninvasive platforms, highlighting their relative performance, clinical maturity, and translational potential. Clinical evidence indicates that CGM use is associated with reductions in HbA1c of ∼0.5%–1.0%, decreased hypoglycemic events, and improved time‐in‐range, while emerging predictive algorithms enable glucose forecasting within 15–30 min, supporting proactive therapeutic decisions. Advances in electrochemical and optical biosensors, smart coatings, and wearable integration have significantly enhanced accuracy, stability, and biocompatibility. A key insight of this review is that no single sensing modality currently achieves the ideal balance of accuracy, stability, and noninvasiveness; instead, progress lies in the convergence of multimodal sensing, improved calibration algorithms, and seamless integration with insulin delivery systems. Emerging technologies including optical spectroscopy, bioimpedance, and electromagnetic sensing show promise but remain limited by signal variability and the need for robust real‐time data correction. The major challenges remain in calibration, signal drift, and reliability of noninvasive systems. Overall, this review identifies algorithm sensor integration and noninvasive sensing technologies as key drivers in the evolution toward fully autonomous closed‐loop diabetes management, offering a roadmap for next‐generation CGM development and precision diabetes car.
Tin selenide (SnSe), a two‐dimensional layered semiconductor, has emerged as a highly versatile material with significant potential in environmental sensing and electrocatalysis. Its unique physicochemical characteristics, including a high surface‐to‐volume ratio, tunable bandgap, excellent electrical conductivity, and strong catalytic activity, make SnSe particularly attractive for detecting endocrine‐disrupting compounds (EDCs) at trace concentrations. In recent years, extensive efforts have been dedicated to synthesizing SnSe nanostructures through various methods, such as thermal evaporation, hydrothermal, chemical vapor deposition, solvothermal, sputtering, and hot injection. These synthesis approaches enable fine control over morphology, crystallinity, and functional properties, thereby tailoring SnSe for specific sensing and catalytic applications. SnSe has demonstrated remarkable potential in advanced sensing platforms, including electrochemical sensors, biosensors, and gas sensors, where its high conductivity and catalytic surface promote rapid, sensitive, and selective detection. In electrocatalysis, SnSe‐based heterostructures and composites have shown promising performance toward critical reactions such as the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO 2 RR), underlining their applicability in clean energy and environmental remediation. The review addresses the major challenges limiting the practical deployment of SnSe. This review brings together recent progress on SnSe, its synthesis strategies, structural and electronic properties, and applications in sensing and electrocatalysis. This work emphasizes the potential of SnSe as a cornerstone for next‐generation sensor technologies and environmental monitoring systems, while also outlining existing challenges and future opportunities for improving stability, scalability, and integration into portable detection devices.
Cerium oxide-based materials have attracted significant attention for electrochemical applications because of their redox properties. However, the selection of a suitable electrolyte for a specific electrochemical reaction must ensure sufficient ionic conductivity while preserving the electrode surface in its initial state throughout operation. In this article, a polycrystalline compact cerium dioxide (pCeO2) film deposited on glassy carbon by non-reactive magnetron sputtering was studied as an electrode material to elucidate the influence of electrolyte composition on its electrochemical properties. Electrochemical measurements were performed in neutral electrolytes-phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), citrate buffer and potassium chloride (KCl)-using cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry (CA), while surface chemistry was characterised by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy. Electrochemical cycling in PBS induced the surface reduction of pCeO2, which is partially attributed to the phosphate-mediated stabilisation of Ce3+ species that suppresses re-oxidation. The electrochemical response in PBS was strongly concentration-dependent: low concentrations (<= 10 mM) led to a progressive increase of the integrated charge, whereas higher concentrations (100 mM) caused electrode deactivation. A possible mechanism for surface passivation by phosphates is proposed. In citrate buffer, prolonged cycling promoted surface reduction, likely accompanied by citrate accumulation on the electrode surface. In contrast, the pCeO2 electrode showed a markedly lower current density in KCl. These results demonstrate that the electrochemical properties of pCeO2 films are strongly influenced by electrolyte type, concentration and cycling conditions, providing important guidance for optimising the stability and functionality of ceria-based materials in electrochemical sensing and catalytic applications.
