This study evaluated the effects of combined vermicompost and nitrogen fertilisation on soil physical properties and the yield of mustard greens (Brassica juncea L.) cultivated under coastal dryland conditions in Jungutbatu Village, Nusa Lembongan, Bali, Indonesia. The experiment was conducted during a single growing season using a factorial randomised block design with six vermicompost rates (0–25 Mg∙ha−1) and four nitrogen levels (0–138 kg N∙ha−1), each replicated three times. Vermicompost was incorporated into the soil prior to planting, while nitrogen was applied as urea during crop growth. Plant growth parameters, biomass yield, and selected soil physical and chemical properties were assessed. The combined application of vermicompost and nitrogen significantly affected the plant height, leaf area index, and total biomass yield. The highest fresh (238.52 Mg∙ha−1) and oven-dried biomass (12.53 Mg∙ha−1) were obtained with 25 Mg∙ha−1 vermicompost combined with 138 kg N∙ha−1. Improvements in soil porosity and permeability, and reductions in bulk density, were also observed as accompanied by increases in soil organic carbon and total nitrogen. Regression analysis indicated predominantly linear responses of biomass yield to increasing fertiliser doses, suggesting additive rather than synergistic effects under the conditions of this study. These findings demonstrate the short-term potential of integrated organic and inorganic fertilisation to improve mustard productivity and soil physical quality in nutrient-poor coastal drylands. However, further multi-season and multi-site studies are required to evaluate the long-term soil effects, environmental risks, and the economic feasibility of high vermicompost application rates.
The use of agricultural and food industry by-products as alternative feed sources is gaining importance in the context of global environmental and economic challenges. The leaves and husks of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) are rich in crude fibre and microelements, which may make them suitable for use in livestock feed. The aim of the study was to analyse and compare the chemical composition and nutritional value of the leaves and husks of four hazelnut varieties (‘Kataloński’, ‘Olbrzymi z Hale’, ‘Olga’, ‘Webba Cenny’) in terms of their potential use as feed components. Significant differences between biomass types and varieties were found in most of the analysed parameters. The leaves were characterised by higher nitrogen (up to 1.11%), phosphorus (up to 0.109%), calcium (up to 1.042%) and magnesium (up to 0.264%) content, which indicates their potential as a protein-mineral supplement. The husks showed higher potassium (up to 2.037%), sodium, iron (up to 3032.9 mg∙kg−1), manganese and zinc, suggesting their potential use as a source of fibre and trace elements. Both the leaves and husks of hazelnuts are characterised by a diverse chemical composition, indicating their potential use in livestock nutrition, especially in regions with a deficit of traditional feed sources. Further research on the digestibility and effect of these components on animal health and production parameters is needed to determine the full range of their practical usefulness in sustainable nutrition.
The waters found in the Oligocene formations are widely recognised as an excellent source of high-quality drinking water that does not require pretreatment or disinfection. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical properties of groundwater of Oligocene aquifers in Warsaw, Poland, which occur at a depth of 200–300 m, to compare them with drinking water standards, and to determine their suitability for consumption in crisis situations. Water samples were collected from ten randomly selected wells. The parameters assessed included pH, conductivity, temperature, turbidity, water hardness, and the concentrations of the following ions: antimony, arsenic, chromium, cadmium, copper, nickel, aluminium, mercury, lead, fluoride, chloride, ammonium, nitrate, sulphate, sodium, and iron. The average values of all analysed parameters were below the maximum limits established for drinking water. However, chloride ion and iron levels exceeded permissible limits at one and two sampling points, respectively. Nevertheless, analysis of the remaining parameters at these specific measurement points suggests that these elevated levels are not caused by anthropogenic sources. The mean values of most of the parameters (16/19) aligned with the first groundwater quality class, indicating excellent quality. The research conducted indicates that Oligocene water is suitable for human consumption in emergency situations. However, it should be noted that the assessment did not consider the presence of microorganisms. The obtained results emphasise the importance of maintaining and regularly monitoring the quality of existing public water sources. Such measures are essential to ensure that these sources remain a reliable emergency water supply.
This study evaluates the effectiveness of telaga-based rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems in Tepus and Semanu Sub-districts of Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in supporting water availability throughout the dry season. The methods included field surveys of 40 telaga/embung1 (morphometric/depth measurements, inlet– catchment conditions, and operational status), descriptive statistical analysis, and estimation of water losses using the FAO-56 Penman–Monteith method (ETo), which was converted into open-water evaporation (Eo). Results show an average designed storage volume of 14,870 m3, while actual effective volume is only approx. 35% due to an average sedimentation rate of 48.25% (50% of telaga fall into the ≥51% sedimentation category). The theoretical rainwater- harvesting effectiveness is 20.85%, whereas actual effectiveness is 6.09% (actual range 0–33.8%; 37.5% of telaga have lost their function). At peak dry-season conditions, Eo ranges from approx. 5–7 mm per day (approx. 31–43 m3 per day for an average surface area of 6,138 m2). Accumulated evaporation over approximately 90 days is equivalent to approx. 2.76–3.87∙103 m3, or approx. 53–74% of the initial effective storage (approx. 5.20∙103 m3). Operationally, telaga retain their functional capacity for only ±2–3 months after the rainy season, rendering their supply insufficient to meet demand over the entire dry period.
Pharmaceutical are widely used by humans and are commonly discharged into the environment as waste after use. Pharmaceutical wastewater contains organic compounds that can be removed through the integration of ultrasound and electro-Fenton methods. This study aims to analyse the removal efficiency of total organic carbon (TOC) and inorganic carbon (IC) in pharmaceutical wastewater using an integrated ultrasound-electro-Fenton process. Pharmaceutical wastewater obtained from PT. X was used for laboratory experiments. The independent variables in this study consisted of treatment time and pH in the ultrasound process. The ultrasound–electro-Fenton process was conducted using variations in treatment time, FeSO₄ + H₂O₂ dosage, and a voltage of 25 V. The optimal treatment condition was achieved at 90 minutes of ultrasound exposure and pH 3 under acidic conditions. At acidic pH, hydroxyl radicals (•OH) are formed through water dissociation during maximum cavitation, resulting in a TOC reduction of 71.48% and an IC reduction of 95.71%. The integrated process successfully reduced TOC by 94.04%. IC was also reduced by 98.27% after 90 minutes of treatment. These results demonstrate that the integrated ultrasound–electro-Fenton process is effective in reducing refractory organic compounds in pharmaceutical wastewater. The degradation of complex compounds increased biodegradability, as indicated by a decrease in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) under acidic conditions. Further evaluation is needed for other parameters that may require additional treatment.
This study aimed to examine the frequency and variability of sequences of days with atmospheric precipitation across the Mazovian Lowland during the growing season (April–October) over the period 1971–2020. The research was based on daily precipitation totals recorded at meteorological stations in Legionowo, Pułtusk, and Siedlce. A precipitation sequence was defined as a series of consecutive days with rainfall ≥0.1 mm, and classification was conducted following the methodology proposed by Zawora (1995). The structure and variability of these sequences were assessed in both spatial and temporal dimensions, and trends in their number were analysed using the Mann– Kendall test. During the study period, a total of 1,787 precipitation events at least three days long were recorded. The majority (approximately 64%) comprised sequences of 4–9 days. Shorter, 3-day events represented 19% of observations, while sequences exceeding 9 days were considerably less frequent. Exceptionally long sequences (≥23 days) occurred sporadically. The highest number of short and medium-length events was observed in Legionowo, whereas Siedlce experienced a greater frequency of extended sequences exceeding 10 days. The structure of sequences in Pułtusk was the most stable, with a predominance of medium-length series. Seasonally, 4–9 day sequences were most common in spring, while in the latter half of the growing season, both short events and those exceeding 10 days became increasingly prominent.
Climate change poses a major challenge for water-resources management in arid and semi-arid regions, particularly in the Mediterranean basin, where declining precipitation and increasing hydrological variability threaten water security. This study evaluates the impacts of climate change on water availability in the Loukkos River basin (Northern Morocco) and assesses the feasibility of inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) as an adaptation strategy under future climatic conditions. The analysis is based on a comprehensive methodological framework combining statistical analysis of long-term hydrological records (1945–2022), stochastic modelling for projected inflow scenarios, and reservoir system simulation using the River Basin Simulation Model (RIBASIM), incorporating climate scenarios to reflect uncertainty in precipitation patterns. Results revealed a significant hydrological regime shift around 1979, followed by a decline in water availability. Mean annual inflows decreased by approximately 41 and 31% in the Oued El Makhazine–Tfer and Dar Khrofa dams, respectively. Reservoir simulations illustrate the basin’s capacity to satisfy local water demands while maintaining inter-basin transfer potential. Under baseline conditions, transferable volumes reach approximately 193 Mm3∙yr−1 increasing to 271 Mm3∙yr−1 by 2050, with the construction of the Tfer dam. Climate change projections indicate that transferable volumes exhibit high interannual variability and may decline to zero in certain years. The findings highlight the critical role of strategic infrastructure development, particularly enhanced storage capacity, in mitigating climate change impacts. Inter-basin water transfer remains viable, but its long-term reliability under climate uncertainty depends on flexible allocation rules and adaptive management.
The increasing amount of waste generated by the agricultural industry, especially in the wine sector, poses environmental and economic challenges. This issue is particularly pressing as the global population is projected to reach 8.5 bln by 2030, which will further exacerbate solid waste management problems. Therefore, a study was conducted to investigate the possibility of using grapevine leaves as an alternative animal feed ingredient. The aim of the present study was to analyse the chemical composition of the leaves of four grape varieties, ‘Regent’, ‘Rondo’, ‘Seyval Blanc’ and ‘Solaris’, in the context of their potential use as animal feed. The results indicated that grapevine leaves are a valuable source of protein, fibre and micro- and macronutrients, with the content of these components differing significantly between varieties. The leaf yield per hectare ranged from 6.08 to 8.78 Mg, with ‘Solaris’ yielding significantly the highest biomass among the studied cultivars. The analysis also revealed significant differences in the content of amino acids such as cystine, glycine, valine, tryptophan and threonine, as well as in the content of minerals, starch and neutral detergent fibre. The results obtained highlight the variation in nutritional value of grapevine leaves between varieties, suggesting the possibility of selective use depending on the nutritional needs of the animals. Utilizing such by-products supports a circular economy model and reduces the negative environmental impact of wine production.
Coal mining activities often raise concerns about heavy metal contamination in surrounding water and soil, threatening environmental quality and public health. This study investigates the concentration of six toxic metals (Cu, Cd, Mn, Zn, Pb, and Fe) in water and soil samples collected around the PT. X in Riau Province, Indonesia mining site to assess environmental impacts and inform sustainable management. Sampling was conducted across multiple locations including pits, rivers, settlements, and operational areas during the rainy season. Exploratory descriptive analysis was conducted to compare measured metal concentrations with national and international quality standards. Results show that while most heavy metal levels remain below regulatory thresholds, iron concentrations in river water approach the permissible limit, indicating potential seasonal risks. Cadmium and lead were generally undetectable, highlighting effective pollution control. Soil samples showed localised exceedances of Cu, Zn, and Mn near riverine and residential areas, indicating site-specific contamination with potential ecological and human health implication. Despite available alternatives, local communities continue to rely heavily on river water, exposing them to potential health hazards. During the study period, most metal concentrations in water did not exceed current standards, whereas local exceedances of selected elements were observed in soil, thus seasonal monitoring, community education, and improved access to safe water are essential for environmental and public health protection.
To assess groundwater quality in the semi-arid Guorriguer Plain, Tebessa, northeastern Algeria, two indices were used: the water quality index (WQI) and the groundwater pollution index (GPI). Accordingly, the physical and chemical parameters of 21 groundwater wells were evaluated. Field measurements included pH, temperature, and electrical conductivity, while cation and anion concentrations were analysed in the laboratory. The results show that groundwater resources in the study area are mostly suitable for drinking. A comprehensive assessment of water quality using the WQI and GPI standard indices revealed that approximately 90% of the sampled wells met permissible quality thresholds, with many classified as “excellent” to “good” (WQI < 200). This was confirmed by parallel GPI assessments, which indicated that 90% of samples showed only “minor pollution” to “slight pollution” (GPI < 1.5), suggesting minimal human impact in most areas. However, clear localised deterioration was observed in 10% of the samples located along the southwest-to-northeast axis, where high total dissolved solids (TDS) values (1500–3189 mg∙dm−3) and specific conductivity (>2000 μS∙cm−1) exceeded recommended limits. This was primarily due to the influence of geological formations and, secondarily, to agricultural activity characteristic of this region. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of groundwater quality dynamics in semi-arid regions by integrating several indicators and examining their relationships with natural and human factors to obtain accurate results that can help the responsible authorities improve the management and conservation of these important resources.
Ensuring the sustainable use of water resources is one of Kazakhstan’s key development priorities. The country faces limited availability of freshwater, uneven spatial distribution of water resources, deteriorated irrigation infrastructure, and the growing impacts of climate change. These factors pose significant risks to food security and the long-term resilience of the agricultural sector. The aim of this study is to conduct a comprehensive assessment of agricultural water use in Kazakhstan, identify the key constraints limiting the efficiency of water management, and develop a theoretically grounded, integrated model of sustainable water resource management adapted to the country’s climatic, institutional, and technological conditions. The methodology is based on a mixed-methods approach, combining structured surveys (521 respondents) with an analysis of statistical data covering the period from 1960 to 2023. The study examines irrigation practices, water availability, levels of digitalisation, and institutional mechanisms of water governance across different agro-climatic zones of the country. The results show that 68% of farms experience water supply disruptions, 72% face deterioration of irrigation systems, and 65% incur substantial water losses. Only 23% of farmers employ water-saving technologies, primarily due to financial and informational constraints. The study concludes by recommending accelerated modernisation of irrigation infrastructure, the implementation of digital monitoring and water-management systems, expansion of state support measures, and the promotion of innovative technologies in the agricultural sector.
Understanding how tillage practices influence canopy development in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is essential for improving productivity in sustainable farming systems, particularly in temperate regions with variable spring moisture. This study assessed the effects of conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT), and no-tillage (NT) on spring wheat canopy structure and architecture and examined their relationships with yield formation. A three- season field experiment was conducted on Luvisol soils in central Poland within a four-course crop rotation. Canopy traits, including plant and shoot density, the share of productive shoots, shoot-type distribution, shoot length, spike morphology, and grain parameters, were measured at key growth stages. CT improved stand establishment, tillering capacity, and spike productivity, producing the highest grain yield in all seasons. By contrast, NT reduced the proportion of multi-shoot and fertile plants, shortened spikes, and reduced grain weight, resulting in a yield decline of more than 30% relative to CT. Strong correlations were observed between canopy structure and grain yield and between architectural traits and spike performance. These findings indicate that tillage systems should be evaluated not only in terms of soil-related benefits but also according to their ability to support canopy functionality and yield resilience under increasingly variable climatic conditions.
Accurate land-use change (LUC) forecasts are essential for resilience-oriented planning in fast-urbanising watersheds. This study operationalises an open, reproducible cellular automata-artificial neural network (CA-ANN) workflow within the QGIS MOLUSCE plugin to simulate LUC in the Banjir Kanal Timur (BKT) watershed over 2004– 2034. Multitemporal Landsat scenes (2004, 2014, 2024) were classified via maximum likelihood into five land-use classes, achieving overall accuracy (OA) of 90.7–94.9% and Kappa coefficients of 0.852–0.869; independent validation of the CA-ANN model against the 2024 map yielded Kappa = 0.829, indicating excellent agreement. Empirically, settlement expanded from 27.404 km2 in 2004 to 43.158 km2 in 2024 (>78% of the watershed), while forest declined from 22.467 to 5.775 km2 and water bodies from 3.697 to 2.586 km2. Forward simulation to 2034 indicates further settlement growth to 44.583 km2 (80–81%), with forest contracting to 6.710 km2 (12%) and water bodies to 2.776 km2 (5%), signaling increasing imperviousness, reduced ecological buffering, and heightened flood and habitat- fragmentation risk. The hybrid CA-ANN model reproduces characteristic urban clustering and vegetation fragmentation and generates decision-oriented spatial layers, such as transition-potential surfaces and maps highlighting areas of rapid conversion and increased exposure. By embedding CA-ANN in an accessible QGIS- based pipeline, the study advances a transferable decision-support approach that links quantitative LUC forecasts and their uncertainties to enforceable growth boundaries, riparian buffers, and portfolios of low-impact development. Consequently, strengthens evidence-based zoning and urban watershed resilience planning.
The frequent occurrence of flash floods in the small mountainous areas around Argopuro, Ijen and Raung in East Java, with steep terrain and short hydrological response times, poses significant challenges for risk assessment in regions with limited hydrological observations. This study assesses flash-flood susceptibility in eight small watersheds in East Java, Indonesia, using a random forest (RF)-based approach. A flash-flood inventory for 2012–2022 was compiled and used to train and validate the model. Ten conditioning factors were derived from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM), river-network data and satellite imagery, including slope, topographic wetness index (TWI), topographic position index (TPI), river density, land use and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI). Land-use changes from 2001 to 2020 were used to assess their influence. To strengthen the hydrological context, event-based rainfall data corresponding to flash-flood occurrences and field-based photographic documentation were incorporated. The accuracy of the RF model was assessed using ROC curves and root mean square error (RMSE), indicating outstanding performance (scores of 0.96–0.99). Based on the model results, four main factors were identified as key determinants of flash-flood occurrence: land cover and its changes, slope steepness, river-network density and TPI. The spatial patterns generated by the RF model delineate areas with varying susceptibility levels, providing actionable information for prioritising mitigation measures. These findings contribute to a better understanding of flash-flood drivers in small watersheds and provide a scientific basis for local governments and stakeholders to design targeted risk-reduction strategies that combine land-use planning, watershed management and community-based adaptation.
Although having a digital surface water database seems obvious in today’s digital era, earlier studies show persistent shortcomings, errors, and outdated spatial information on hydrographic networks. A response to this need is the integration of geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing tools, using orthophotomosaics from photogrammetric flights in various spectral ranges and converting them into vector data on water extent. Using the example of the Polish administration, this article synthesises the structure of the existing surface water database and proposes a coherent, optimised, and scalable methodology for its development. The workflow covers both attribute design and an automated process for acquiring geometric information with GIS and remote sensing techniques. The methodology includes: (1) analysing attribute requirements through a survey; (2) acquiring and processing photogrammetric imagery from two altitudinal levels (aerial and unmanned aerial vehicle – UAV) and elevation data (digital terrain model/digital elevation model (DTM/DEM) derived from LAS point clouds); (3) automatic water detection using the normalized difference water index (NDWI) and elevation model classification; (4) assessing the accuracy of generated stream centrelines by comparing them with global positioning system (GPS) field measurements and performing statistical correlation analysis; and (5) developing a database structure supported by empirical evidence. Such automation enables rapid production of hydrographic information and ensures uniform data acquisition at a supra-regional scale. Consequently, the proposed methodology provides a foundation for a unified, automated, and scalable surface water inventory suitable for national and international applications.
The strong influence of climate change on terrestrial-aquatic ecosystems is illustrated by changes in the hydrological cycle, water quality degradation, and the intensification of extreme events such as floods and droughts. This review brings together the international evidence on the coupled impacts of climatic variability on freshwater availability, pollution, agricultural practices, and governance systems. The results suggest that changes in precipitation regimes, increases in ambient temperatures, and accelerated snowmelt all reduce streamflow and groundwater recharge. These alterations further disturb seasonal water availability, ecosystem services, and the long-term security of communities dependent on freshwater resources. At the same time, anthropogenic pollution and eutrophication are additional threats to aquatic ecosystems. Extreme climatic events increase the risk of flooding and drought, which in turn result in socio-economic losses and reduced agricultural productivity. Fisheries and food systems, more generally, are highly sensitive to increases in temperature and habitat degradation. The review also highlights that vulnerable regions require integrated monitoring, early-warning systems, and locally adaptable mitigation strategies. Good governance, grounded in the principles of equity, inclusion, and adaptive management, is needed for sustainable water allocation and resilience-building. The combination of climate-smart agricultural practices, technological interventions, and transboundary cooperation offers promising ways forward for achieving water sustainability amid future climatic uncertainty. Overall, the study emphasises the need for science-based policy, stakeholder participation, and coordinated international action.
This study aimed to analyse the variability of precipitation deficits and excesses during the maize (Zea maysL.) growing season in Central-Eastern Poland from 1971 to 2020. Meteorological data were obtained from IMGW-PIBstations located in Siedlce, Włodawa, Legionowo, Pułtusk, Szepietowo, and Białowieża. The water balance wascalculated based on crop evapotranspiration (ETc), determined using a modified Hargreaves equation and cropcoefficients (kc). Results indicate that spring precipitation excesses predominated during the first two decades, whereasfrom the 1990s onwards, water deficits became increasingly pronounced, particularly in June and July – critical monthsfor maize yield formation. At many stations, average deficits during this period exceeded 50 mm, with localised valuesdropping below 75 mm. Principal component analysis (PCA) explained nearly 67% of total variance and revealeda clear shift in hydroclimatic conditions. Early decades (1971–1990) were characterised by relatively stable conditions,while the period after 1990 showed increasing variability, including more frequent alternation of deficit and excessevents. The most recent decades (2001–2020) were marked by strong intra-decadal variability and intensifiedfluctuations in the water balance. Spatial differentiation was also noted: precipitation excesses were more frequent inthe north-eastern part of the region, whereas central locations were mainly affected by deficits. These trends areconsistent with broader climatic patterns in Central Europe, showing increasing drought frequency alongside moreintense precipitation events. The results highlight growing instability in water availability and confirm the need foradaptive water management strategies, particularly during the most sensitive growth stages of maize.
Sustainable management of soils with low organic matter in semi-arid regions remains a major agricultural challenge. Organic amendments can improve soil structure and increase productivity. This study evaluated the effects of poultry manure (PM) and palm compost (PC) on soil physical properties at two depths (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm) and on the yield of barley (Hordeum vulgare L. ‘Rihane 03’) in El-Maadher, Algeria. A randomised complete block design with three replications was used, comprising three treatments: T1 (control), T2 (PM), and T3 (PC). The amendments significantly improved soil physical properties, with the effects most pronounced in the 0–20 cm layer. At maturity, PM reduced bulk density by 7% and increased porosity by 15% and permeability by 82% compared with the control. PC also improved these properties, although it was less effective than PM. Both amendments significantly (p < 0.05) increased yield components. PM produced the highest grain yield (11.2 Mg∙ha−1), followed by PC (9.8 Mg∙ha−1), both of which were considerably higher than the control (5.3 Mg∙ha−1). Overall, the study indicates that poultry manure is the most effective organic amendment for improving soil hydro-physical properties and increasing barley yield. These findings highlight the importance of selecting appropriate organic amendments to achieve successful agricultural outcomes. For farmers, the results provide a clear, evidence-based recommendation: poultry manure can deliver rapid soil improvement and maximise productivity. This research presents a practical approach to advancing sustainable agriculture in semi-arid areas by enhancing soil health, improving water-use efficiency, and contributing to food security.
This research aims to develop Horton infiltration for tropical peatland using an injection-well approach that relates soil moisture to the infiltration rate. The research was conducted in the peatland of Palangka Raya City – Sebangau District, Indonesia. Soil sampling was carried out to determine the depth of shallow peatland (50–100 cm) and medium peatland (100–200 cm) using an auger and ring samples. The methodology consisted of investigating a simple laboratory-scale injection-simulator model covering dimension, depth, number, and flow velocity, and then developing a Horton infiltration model for tropical peatland using an injection-well approach that relates soil moisture to the infiltration rate. The results show that the modified Horton infiltration analysis, with the addition of moisture in the simple injection-simulator tool, produces a very strong relationship between discharge and modified Horton infiltration, a very strong relationship between discharge and groundwater level, and a very strong relationship between modified Horton infiltration and groundwater level in medium-depth peatland deeper than one metre (>1 m). The modified Horton infiltration development model for tropical peatland is better than the original Horton infiltration model because peatland is porous and infiltration increases with increasing water volume and soil moisture. In addition, the injection well increases the infiltration-capacity system, whereas the original Horton model analyses only natural infiltration.
This study evaluated the effects of a microbial inoculant containing plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) on soil microbial properties and turfgrass aesthetic quality under limited irrigation. The experiment was conducted on two turfgrass systems: a perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) (T1) and a mixture including microclover (T2), under two soil moisture levels: 40 and 60% field water capacity (FWC). The parameters analysed included regrowth intensity, root length-to-dry-mass ratio, soil-plant analysis development (SPAD) leaf greenness index, and soil dehydrogenase activity (DHA). PGPB application significantly increased both root system length and biomass, particularly under drought stress, which was also reflected in higher DHA values and improved turf visual quality. The highest dehydrogenase activity was recorded in PGPB-treated plots at 60% FWC, regardless of turf type. Although SPAD index differences were not statistically significant, a consistent trend indicated that PGPB application under drought conditions helped stabilise SPAD values. The best visual quality was observed in the perennial ryegrass and microclover mixture, likely due to a more developed root system and enhanced microbial activity in the rhizosphere. These findings suggest that PGPB application at the beginning of the growing season can enhance turf resilience and recovery under drought stress.
