ABSTRACT Freshwater molluscs are key bioindicators of ecosystem health, yet their conservation status and data coverage in sub‐Saharan Africa remain poorly understood. Mollusca is the third most evaluated phylum on the IUCN Red List in Africa, with 1394 species assessed (656 freshwater), of which 39.6% are Least Concern and 12% Critically Endangered. Notably, 22.4% are Data Deficient, signalling major knowledge gaps. This study assessed the availability of freshwater mollusc occurrence records and molecular data across mainland sub‐Saharan Africa. Occurrence records were compiled from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), filtered geographically, taxonomically standardised and linked to IUCN Red List categories. In parallel, cytochrome oxidase I (COI) barcode coverage was evaluated using the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD). We identified 36,927 occurrence records, with South Africa (6683) and Tanzania (4299) contributing the most data. Sampling effort was strongly clustered in central and southern Africa, revealing pronounced spatial biases. The Democratic Republic of Congo supported the highest number of threatened species, including 10 Critically Endangered and 19 Endangered taxa. Despite this concentration of diversity and threat, only 94 sub‐Saharan freshwater mollusc species possessed COI barcodes, exposing a severe shortfall in molecular reference data. By integrating GBIF occurrences, IUCN assessments and BOLD barcodes, this work jointly evaluates conservation status, data completeness and genetic information for freshwater molluscs in sub‐Saharan Africa. Analyses of geographic, taxonomic and threat‐related patterns exposed critical gaps in occurrence records, inconsistencies in threat documentation and widespread deficiencies in molecular resources. Pollution, habitat modification, invasive species and overharvesting were the most frequently reported threats. Collectively, these findings identify priority regions and taxa for reassessment, enhanced monitoring and strategic expansion of genetic reference libraries, providing a targeted framework to strengthen freshwater mollusc conservation in the region.
ABSTRACT Ants are widely used as bioindicators because their diversity and species composition respond to environmental conditions. This study investigated the diversity, distribution, and abundance of ant species across three ecosystem types in Lagos State, Nigeria: nature reserves (conservation and recreation), agroecosystems (cassava farms), and residential areas. Three sampling methods (pitfall traps, baiting, and hand collection) were employed. Diversity indices and Bray Curtis dissimilarity were used to characterise community structure and assess similarity among sites. A total of 101 ant species belonging to 6 subfamilies and 30 genera were recorded. Species richness varied across ecosystems, with higher richness in agroecosystems (80 species), followed by nature reserves (61 species) and residential areas (28 species). Diversity and richness differed significantly among sites ( p < 0.05), with Badagry showing the highest diversity (3.51) and Alimosho the lowest (2.07). Some overlap in species composition was observed between nature reserves and residential areas, including the presence of non‐native species. The occurrence of these species across all ecosystems suggests widespread human‐mediated dispersal. These findings highlight patterns of variation in ant assemblages across land‐use types and underscore the need for continued monitoring to support biodiversity conservation in rapidly urbanising tropical landscapes.
ABSTRACT Climate change is increasingly reshaping species distributions and ecological interactions, yet its effects on obligate mutualisms remain poorly understood. One of the most remarkable examples is the ancient symbiosis between fungus‐growing termites (Macrotermitinae) and their obligate fungal partners of the genus Termitomyces , a mutualism that underpins nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, soil engineering and ecosystem productivity throughout sub‐Saharan Africa. Whether contrasting modes of fungal symbiont transmission influence the resilience of fungus‐growing termites to climate change has, however, received little attention. Here, we investigate the current and future habitat suitability of two ecologically important Macrotermes species in Côte d'Ivoire, Macrotermes bellicosus , which vertically transmits its Termitomyces symbiont and Macrotermes subhyalinus , which acquires its fungal partner through horizontal transmission. Using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modelling based on 162 and 127 occurrence records, respectively, and eight carefully selected environmental predictors, we quantified current habitat suitability, identified the principal environmental drivers of species distributions, projected distributional shifts under SSP2‐4.5 and SSP5‐8.5 climate scenarios for 2050 and identified climatically stable refugia of conservation importance. Habitat suitability was primarily explained by the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Human Footprint Index, while annual temperature, annual precipitation, precipitation seasonality and the minimum temperature of the coldest month also contributed substantially to model performance. Climate projections predicted an overall decline in highly suitable habitats for both species, although their responses differed markedly. Whereas M. bellicosus is expected to maintain a relatively stable distribution, M. subhyalinus is projected to undergo pronounced spatial redistribution under future climatic conditions. These contrasting responses suggest that fungal symbiont transmission mode may represent an overlooked biological trait influencing species resilience to climate change. More broadly, this study provides novel evidence that host‐symbiont interactions should be explicitly incorporated into predictive species distribution models and conservation planning to improve forecasts of biodiversity responses to global environmental change.
ABSTRACT Plant–pollinator interactions are fundamental to ecosystem functioning, particularly in semi‐arid environments where floral resources are strongly limited during the summer. Marrubium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae), a widespread wild plant species in Algeria that flowers during the summer period, may therefore represent a key floral resource for wild pollinators. This study investigates the diversity, structure and temporal dynamics of wild bee assemblages associated with M. vulgare in northeastern Algeria. A total of 337 individuals belonging to 41 species, 19 genera and four bee families were recorded. Among these, Amegilla velocissima (Fedtschenko, 1875) is reported as new for the country. The assemblage exhibited a highly uneven structure, with a clear dominance of Bombus terrestris and a high proportion of rare species. Diversity indices indicated high species richness and diversity, with foraging activity peaking in the morning. The community was strongly female‐biased, reflecting resource‐oriented foraging behaviour. Multivariate analyses revealed that community composition was primarily structured by plant developmental stage and sex, whereas the effect of time of day was limited. Overall, these findings highlight the ecological importance of M. vulgare as a summer floral resource and its potential role in maintaining pollinator diversity in semi‐arid Mediterranean ecosystems.
ABSTRACT Understanding how environmental and structural factors shape bird communities is critical for biodiversity conservation in tropical savannah ecosystems. In this study, we examined the effects of seasonal variation and fine‐scale vegetation structure on bird community composition within a protected savannah woodland at the Federal University Lokoja Zoo and Conservatory, north‐central Nigeria. Bird surveys were conducted using line transects between February and May 2025, spanning the dry and early wet seasons. In total, we recorded 562 individuals representing 66 species across 37 families. Vegetation structure and environmental variables were measured at the transect level, and community patterns were analysed using multivariate and regression‐based approaches. Bird community composition differed significantly between seasons, reflecting both shifts in species composition and variation within seasons. Species richness and Shannon diversity were higher during the wet season, whereas total abundance did not vary significantly. Ordination analysis indicated that vegetation structure was the primary driver of community organization, with grass height, shrub density and tree cover showing the strongest relationships with species composition. Generalized linear models further identified shrub density as the most consistent predictor, positively influencing species richness, abundance and diversity, while canopy cover showed negative associations with abundance and diversity. Indicator species analysis revealed clear seasonal patterns, with nectar‐feeding sunbirds associated with the dry season and insectivorous and omnivorous species more common in the wet season. Overall, our findings emphasize the role of fine‐scale habitat heterogeneity in shaping bird communities within small savannah fragments and provide valuable baseline data for biodiversity monitoring in understudied West African ecosystems.
ABSTRACT Elephant behaviour towards dead conspecifics has been well documented, but mostly on fresh female or calf carcasses. This study builds upon existing observations by describing elephant interactions at the mortality site of a long‐dead bull African savannah elephant in southern Kenya. A camera was installed at the site for 3.5 months in 2023, during which 34 unique visits were recorded. Visiting elephants often interacted with (e.g., touched, sniffed) the bones. Most events (85.3%) were by lone males or bachelor groups. Patterns of visitation are compared to past studies, and hypotheses explaining the prolonged visitation to dead conspecifics are discussed.
ABSTRACT Post‐war Mozambique provides a rare setting to evaluate ecological models of African buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ) translocation outcomes. Following severe declines caused by armed conflict, translocations were implemented to restore ecological functioning. We tested whether Species Distribution Modelling (SDM) with MaxEnt, combined with Mahalanobis climatic distance, can retrospectively explain success or failure and guide future planning. Using 369 filtered occurrence records (1994–2014) and seven uncorrelated ecogeographic variables, we generated Suitability Habitat Indices (SHIs) and assessed model performance (AUC = 0.957; TSS = 0.804). Translocation outcomes were compared between origin and destination sites using ΔSHI (SHIdestination − SHIorigin) and climatic dissimilarity. Successful translocations, defined as short‐term establishment (survival, adaptation, reproduction), were linked to positive or near‐zero ΔSHI values and often supported by interventions such as water provisioning or dam construction. Failures occurred when high‐SHI sources were moved to low‐SHI destinations without ecological compensation. Climatic distance provided supplementary explanatory power but showed weak correlation with outcomes, underscoring the primacy of SHI‐based assessments. Importantly, movements across Mozambique's six zooregions revealed that intra‐zooregional translocations were more feasible, while inter‐zooregional transfers exposed buffalo to novel ecological thresholds requiring intensive management. These findings demonstrate that SDM‐derived SHIs, integrated with climatic distance and zooregional boundaries, offer a transparent framework for evaluating translocation feasibility. Embedding SHI modelling within adaptive management and ecological engineering is essential for long‐term restoration success in fragmented savanna landscapes.
Armed conflicts and humanitarian crises across Africa generate profound yet understudied ecological consequences, reshaping ecosystems through complex processes of degradation and regeneration. This review synthesises evidence from across the continent to examine how warfare, displacement, and refugee settlements alter land use, biodiversity, and conservation outcomes. Conflicts weaken governance, disrupt protected area management, and enable illegal logging, mining, poaching, and unsustainable resource extraction, driving deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and wildlife decline. Refugee settlements, often located near ecologically sensitive areas, intensify pressures on forests, water, and arable land through high demand for fuelwood, food, and construction materials. Quantitative studies, including standardised biodiversity surveys in northern Uganda, reveal striking declines in amphibian, reptile, and plant diversity in refugee‐impacted areas compared to nearby controls. Moreover, empirical evidence from Central and East Africa documents sharp increases in bushmeat trade and consumption during and after periods of armed instability. Yet conflict can also produce paradoxical positive effects, where human abandonment allows vegetation recovery and wildlife resurgence, as documented in Mozambique's Gorongosa National Park and other war‐affected landscapes. These contrasting dynamics highlight the dual role of conflict as both a driver of ecological collapse and a catalyst for ecosystem resilience. Integrating social science, ecology, and conflict studies is essential to develop conservation strategies that address both human welfare and biodiversity protection. By framing conflict and displacement as intertwined socio‐ecological processes, our study highlights the urgent need for interdisciplinary approaches to manage Africa's vulnerable ecosystems under conditions of chronic instability.
Habitat heterogeneity and seasonal variation are key drivers of insect diversity, influencing species composition, abundance, and community structure across landscapes. Understanding these patterns is particularly important in Mediterranean mountain ecosystems, where environmental gradients and habitat mosaics contribute to biodiversity patterns. This study investigates butterfly diversity and community structure across five distinct sites in Djurdjura National Park (Algeria), each representing a different habitat type: protected cedar forest, degraded cedar forest, riparian forest, meadow, and cliff. Sampling was conducted from April 2022 to March 2023 using standardised transects. A total of 5527 individuals belonging to 57 species were recorded. Results indicate that butterfly assemblages show substantial overlap among the studied sites, with no statistically detectable separation in community composition given the limited spatial power of the sampling design. However, variation in species richness and abundance was observed among individual sites; notably, the site characterised as degraded cedar forest showed the highest richness, and sites featuring open landscapes supported higher abundances. Seasonal patterns strongly shaped butterfly communities, with a pronounced peak in diversity and abundance during summer, driven by favourable climatic conditions and increased plant resource availability. In contrast, winter and early spring showed reduced activity and simplified communities. Overall, the results suggest that within the limits of the studied sites, seasonal dynamics exert a highly pronounced structuring force on butterfly communities, whereas potential habitat-level differences remained statistically undetectable. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating temporal dynamics when assessing biodiversity patterns in Mediterranean mountain ecosystems.
Malaria remains a major public health threat in sub-Saharan Africa, with Anopheles mosquitoes (Meigen, 1818) as the principal vectors. Rising insecticide resistance necessitates sustainable, ecologically sound alternatives to chemical control. Although larvivorous fish offer a biological solution, introducing exotic species like Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853) has caused ecological damage. This study evaluated the efficacy of the indigenous East African annual killifish, Nothobranchius melanospilus (Pfeffer, 1896), as a biocontrol agent against malaria mosquito larvae under controlled mesocosm conditions. A 25-day experiment used 20 outdoor tanks (10 with N. melanospilus, 10 controls), each stocked with standardized populations of mosquito larvae (ML), soft-bodied crustaceans (SBC), and hard-bodied crustaceans (HBC). Prey abundance was quantified at the end of the experiment, and treatment effects analysed using t-tests and two-way ANOVA. Tanks with N. melanospilus had significantly fewer mosquito larvae than controls (independent samples t-test: t (11.47) = 17.84, p < 0.001). The mean number of ML remaining was 82.0 +/- 9.5 (mean +/- SD) in control tanks compared to only 19.8 +/- 3.7 in treatment tanks, representing a reduction of over 75%. A significant prey type & times; treatment interaction (two-way ANOVA: F (2, 54) = 217.2, p < 0.001) showed mosquito larvae were disproportionately reduced, demonstrating high predatory efficiency and selectivity. Non-target impacts on crustaceans were limited, indicating ecological compatibility. These findings highlight the ecological role of N. melanospilus as a native predator of mosquito larvae. Rather than advocating for active translocation or stocking, I propose that the most effective and sustainable strategy lies in conservation-based mosquito control: preserving the seasonal wetland habitats where these fish naturally occur. Maintaining hydrological integrity and wetland health supports Nothobranchius populations and may indirectly contribute to sustained suppression of mosquito vectors.
The giraffe (Giraffa spp.) is an iconic mega-herbivore native to sub-Saharan Africa. Historically, its range cuts across 22 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Since the 1990s, giraffe populations in Kenya have declined by approximately 25%-30%, dropping from an estimated 155,000 individuals to around 90,000 individuals by 2020. The primary drivers of this declining trend are habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, civil unrest, disease and climate change. Rothschild's giraffes (Giraffe camelopardalis rothschildi) now a subspecies of the Northern giraffe (Giraffe camelopardalis) is listed as globally Near Threatened by the IUCN with a national population of less than 2500 individuals left. Host demographic factors such as age, sex, social structure, together with environmental variables including temperature, rainfall and vegetation cover play a critical role in shaping the occurrence, transmission and intensity of gastrointestinal parasites in wildlife populations. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of intestinal helminths in Rothschild's giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothchildi) populations in Kenya. Specifically, this study determined the relationship between host demographic factors (sex, age, social structure), temperature, rainfall, NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index), management regimes and the infection levels within the Rothschild's giraffe populations. Faecal samples were collected opportunistically from giraffes and stored in 10% formalin for preservation. The samples were then processed under a microscope during floatation, Mc Master and sedimentation techniques. A high gastrointestinal parasite prevalence among giraffes was observed across all study sites (92.8% at Ruma, 100% at Giraffe Centre and 85.4% at Soysambu Conservancy) with no statistically significant differences detected among locations (chi(2) = 5.42, df = 2, p = 0.066). Strongyle-type parasite had the highest prevalence of 95.2%, whereas Taenia spp had the lowest prevalence of 0.3%. Despite the lack of association between parasite infection (diversity and load) and age, sex and social structure, male individuals in family groups had higher parasite load compared to male individuals in bachelor herds. The chi-square test indicated no significant difference in prevalence across the three study sites (chi(2) = 5.42, df = 2, p = 0.066). GLM analyses revealed that three-month mean NDVI, temperature and rainfall positively influenced the load and diversity except for temperature that did not have a significant effect on the parasite diversity. Therefore, our results will assist to understand the dynamics of parasites in the Near Threatened Rothschild's giraffes and allow for the development of appropriate measures towards conserving the subspecies.
The Cape Parrot Poicephalus robustus and the Grey-headed Parrot P. fuscicollis suahelicus have recently been recognized as separate species, each with unique habitat requirements; the former a forest species endemic to South Africa, and the latter a woodland and savannah species with a wider distribution in Africa. We tested the hypothesis that stable isotope ratios can be used to identify dietary partitioning in the diet of these two species. We analysed carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen stable isotopes in feathers (three feathers each from seven individuals and one feather from five individuals) from these species at three sites along a north-south gradient; two sites c. 90 km apart where the two species each occur, and a site c. 685 km further south where the Cape Parrot occurs. Carbon and nitrogen isotope values of feathers were similar for the two geographically separated Cape Parrot populations, which were significantly different to values for Grey-headed Parrot. Low variation within individuals, within each population, and within species reflected unique biome associations for each species. Hydrogen isotope values, on the other hand, reflected location along a north-south hydrogen isotope gradient. Our results support the hypothesis that stable light isotopes are a valuable tool in providing insight into the specialist and biome associated diets of two closely related parrot species.
The Pendjari Biosphere Reserve (PBR), located in the West African savanna, plays a key role in maintaining regional biodiversity. However, the reserve faces a significant challenge due to the recurrent occurrence of early fires, which may influence vegetation dynamics and ecosystem functioning. This study aimed to identify trends and changes in vegetation cover and to assess their implications for the management and conservation of natural resources in the PBR. To achieve this, NDVI data (MOD13Q1) and burned area data (MCD64A1) derived from MODIS satellites were collected over a 22-year period. Using ArcGIS, NDVI pixels were matched with burned area data to generate vegetation indices associated with fire events. The spatio-temporal dynamics of vegetation were mapped, and the rate of vegetation change before and after fires was quantified using Ranson's equation. In addition, Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models were applied to forecast future vegetation dynamics under current fire regimes. The results revealed a progressive shift from dense to more open vegetation formations. A t-test indicated a highly significant difference (p < 0.001) in NDVI values between areas subjected to repeated early fires and those affected by late fires. Under both fire scenarios, ARIMA models project a continued decline in NDVI values. It is important to note that these trends are indicative rather than conclusive, as key drivers such as rainfall, grazing intensity and fire severity were not explicitly incorporated into the analysis. Overall, the findings highlight that both fire timing and frequency are critical drivers of vegetation dynamics in the PBR. Adaptive fire management strategies, including controlled early burning and reduced fire recurrence, are essential to sustain vegetation resilience and ecosystem stability in this fire-prone savanna landscape.
Alien plant species are widely utilised for ornament, agro-forestry, or even for restoration and are more likely to be introduced multiple times and disseminated widely across a landscape. Here we report on the native and alien species used for hedging purposes in rural and peri-urban eastern Africa and undertake a preliminary assessment to determine whether the use of alien species may be contributing to current invasions. We undertook roadside surveys and recorded the presence of all species used as hedges or barriers, excluding vines or climbers. We recorded 110 such plant species (taxa recorded at genus level excluded) but only report on 54 species recorded at five or more localities, and provide a more detailed analysis of the ten most widely used species. Nine of the 54 species grown as hedges were native to eastern Africa and 45 were alien, of which 73% were known to be invasive. Native Euphorbia tirucalli and the alien species Dovyalis afra, Lantana camara, Agave sisalana, Caesalpinia decapetala, Cascabela thevetia, and Tithonia diversifolia were the most widely grown hedge plant species. Lantana camara was recorded as invasive in 38% of grid cells (similar to 55 x 55 km), followed by T. diversifolia (24%), C. decapetala (13%), and A. sisalana (9%). The study supports findings that propagule pressure in the form of alien plants used as hedges may contribute to their spread. However, species such as D. afra and C. thevetia contradict these findings, lending credence to the important role of species traits as drivers of plant invasions. Propagule pressure, species traits, and the characteristics of the recipient environment all contribute to plant invasions; no generalisations can be made.
Vegetation structural complexity matters in explaining species niche and in reshaping community structure of many animal taxa, especially in ecosystems facing environmental deterioration. Even though not all species respond equally to environmental degradation, habitat alteration and loss may lead to local extinction of animal taxa. Basically, activities such as clearing for agriculture and logging can reduce forest patch size and/or widen gaps between habitats, deterring some species from exhaustively exploring all potential resources within their home ranges. Under this study, we used two sympatric Greenbul birds, namely, Lowland Tiny Greenbul Phyllastrephus debilis-a forest specialist, and Yellow-bellied Greenbul Chlorocichla flaviventris-a forest generalist, to investigate their utilization of forest vertical vegetation structure in the forest patches and the associated matrices. We collected data from the coastal forests of north-eastern Tanzania, the forests that have historically been subject to modification following negative human pressure such as tree cutting and clearing for agriculture. We modelled vegetation attributes including tree heights, canopy cover, and tree girths against birds' presence/absence data. We found out that mid-sized trees with dbh between 21 and 30 cm and trees with big canopies strongly influenced our study species differently. The study revealed a directional shift in vegetation use rather than balanced coexistence, especially under high disturbance. While the forest specialist was positively influenced by these two factors, the generalist was influenced negatively. As the coastal forests of EA are under intense pressure following selective logging of trees for the purpose of obtaining building materials, we recommend safeguarding the vegetation to ensure representation of varied vertical structuring in the forest canopy layers for sustainable conservation of these forest dependent birds.
Anthrax is a persistent zoonotic disease affecting wildlife, livestock and humans. We describe a multi-species outbreak in southern Zambia originating from a hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus, 1758), initially misattributed to trauma. Subsequent consumption by lions (Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)) resulted in clinical disease and mortality, with associated human exposure. Concurrent herbivore deaths indicated broader environmental circulation. Bacillus anthracis Cohn, 1872 was confirmed in lion tissues. This case illustrates cross-species transmission facilitated by delayed detection and carcass handling, highlighting the importance of surveillance, appropriate carcass management and integrated One Health approaches in endemic ecosystems.
Tropical forest mammalian communities, particularly those in ecological transition zones, are under constant threat from human activity. In many regions, there is a lack of baseline data on suitable habitats and the environmental factors influencing their suitability. Habitat suitability is a key metric for guiding conservation decisions and is essential for adaptive management of wildlife. These threats mostly affect great apes, including critically endangered Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ellioti Matschie, 1914), which is losing much of the suitable habitat required for reproduction and survival across its distribution range, including Central Cameroon. However, little is known about the habitat suitability of this species, particularly those who inhabit the Mpem and Djim National Parks in Central Cameroon. To address this knowledge gap, we used a common species distribution model (MaxEnt) to map and predict suitable habitats based on environmental factors that potentially affect habitat suitability. These environmental factors were related to a dataset of chimpanzee occurrence points recorded during line transect, camera trapping, and reconnaissance surveys (reccee) in the park. After covering an area of approximately 558.671 km2 on 160.78 km, we found that up to 60% of the study area is unsuitable for chimpanzees. Only 20% of the study area was highly suitable for chimpanzees. Our results also showed that chimpanzees prefer the central and western parts of the study area, which are characterized mainly by high forest density. The MaxEnt model performed well (mean AUC = 0.859 +/- 0.086) and identified a clear spatial pattern of suitable habitats. The most important predictors that positively affect habitat suitability for the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee were NDVI (36.7%), canopy height (17.2%), annual mean temperature (16.3%), forest density (4.2%), distance to road (4.2%), and terrain aspect (3.2%). The suitability map identifies areas that are particularly important for conservation management, especially in the central and western parts of the park. Our study provides robust evidence that certain parts of Mpem and Djim National Park remain suitable habitats for chimpanzees. However, much more effort is needed from the government, park managers, national and international policymakers, and local communities to maintain these habitats and prevent severe damage to the survival of this species in the area. While this study provides a robust baseline for the conservation planning and management of chimpanzees in the area, it also fills an existing gap in the scientific literature on the ecology of Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee communities in Central Cameroon. Furthermore, it highlights the need for large-scale surveys in the future to evaluate the impact of efforts implemented thus far on the habitat suitability of this species.
Understanding how herbivores respond to spatial and temporal resource variability is a central aspect of resource use ecology. This 18-month study examined how seasonal changes in food plants availability, distribution and nutritional quality influence the foraging behaviour of African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Mwea National Reserve, Kenya. We hypothesized that seasonal food selectivity would correlate with vegetation heterogeneity, plant abundance and nutrient content particularly protein, phosphorus and calcium. Using standard ecological methods, food plants were sampled, identified and analysed for nutrient composition. Preference ratios and diversity indices were compared across seasons and vegetation types. Although no significant co-variation was found between food plant and overall species diversity (F (3, 1) = 7.8, p = 0.25, R-2 = 0.836), elephants showed selective foraging, varying by habitat (F = 3.705, p < 0.05). Protein-rich species were consistently favoured; phosphorus-rich plants were selected in the dry season, and calcium-rich species were avoided in the wet season. Dry-season habitat use was influenced by plant heterogeneity and proximity to water, while wet-season use reflected resource evenness. These findings highlight the importance of vegetation structure, spatial distribution and nutrient content in elephant foraging strategies, particularly within fenced landscapes.
Fleshy-fruited invasive alien shrubs are an increasing problem in the grasslands of South Africa, where they alter vegetation and threaten biodiversity. They are predominantly bird-dispersed in forest systems, but their spread in grassland ecosystems remains understudied, including their dispersal by mammals. Mammals can facilitate seed movement and promote germination, seedling emergence and seedling establishment, contributing to increased invasion. Our study aimed to determine the role of various terrestrial mammals in this process for fleshy-fruited invasive alien plants present in montane grasslands. Faeces of eland (Taurotragus oryx), chacma baboon (Papio ursinus), domestic goat (Capra hircus) and black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) were collected in the grasslands of the eastern Free State, South Africa. Seeds were removed from faeces, identified to species level, and planted in a greenhouse to determine seedling emergence success. Seeds of the invasive fleshy-fruited species silver-leaf cotoneaster Cotoneaster pannosus, yellow firethorn Pyracantha angustifolia and eglantine Rosa rubiginosa (all Rosaceae) were identified from the faeces together with the seeds of the indigenous star-apple Diospyros austro-africana. Seed composition in faeces samples differed significantly between mammalian species. There were no significant differences in seedling emergence between ingested P. angustifolia seed and manually de-pulped controls, while there were significantly higher differences in C. pannosus seedling emergence compared with manually de-pulped controls. Overall, seedling emergence from R. rubiginosa seeds in faeces was low (<= 2%), similar to controls. Diospyros austro-africana had the highest seedling emergence percentage for seeds from jackal and eland faeces. Locally found medium to large terrestrial mammals were shown to be significant dispersers of fleshy fruiting plants in the montane grasslands of South Africa, facilitating the spread of these invasive alien plant species.
Predator-prey interactions in three-dimensional arboreal habitats are among the most complex and least observed ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems. Here we report two predation events of the Eastern Vinesnake (Thelotornis mossambicanus) on the Flap-necked Chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis) in sand-forest habitat of the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique. These encounters document a clash between two contrasting arboreal specialist species: chameleons are ambush predators that rely on crypsis, panoramic vision, and ballistic tongue projection, while vinesnakes are active foragers employing stealth, elongate crypsis, and binocular vision for precise depth perception. Whereas the initial attacks were unobserved but most likely occurred in the arboreal milieu, venom-induced incapacitation or violent struggle dislodged both individuals from their perches, resulting in a shift from an arboreal, three-dimensional setting to a two-dimensional stage. These observations are the first published photographic documentation of Thelotornis mossambicanus consuming Chamaeleo dilepis in the field, and they reveal how even highly effective anti-predator adaptations can be circumvented by specialised predators. We discuss the phenomenon of vertical displacement as a consequence of arboreal predation and the value of direct observations versus stomach content analysis, and we propose integrating camera trapping with artificial intelligence-assisted video analysis as a promising approach for documenting rare arboreal interactions.
