Purpose This paper argues that sport offers a rich and underutilized context for advancing institutional analyses of race and organizational behavior. Sport, as an empirical context, is highly visible, emotionally charged and a socially embedded institution where internal and external stakeholders' investments illuminate the contradictions, power dynamics and racialized structures that shape organizational behavior. Design/methodology/approach Drawing upon our own work (Keaton and Macaulay, 2025; Macaulay and Keaton, 2024), we argue that sport is a meaningful context for advancing management theory because of the visibility, irrationality and emotionality tied across stakeholder and social levels. Findings Sport data provide access to emotional, irrational and socially visible phenomena that reveal the interplay of race, legitimacy and power in organizational processes. Moreover, by centering race as a foundational element rather than a peripheral variable, our work highlights the potential of sport as an empirical context for sharpening and expanding institutional theory; thus, laying the groundwork for a critical institutionalism that reintegrates society and structural inequalities into analyses of institutional theory. Originality/value Across these projects (Keaton and Macaulay, 2025; Macaulay and Keaton, 2024), the context of sport did not merely provide an illustrative setting; it demonstrated that institutional theory is rife for centering how racial meanings/issues are stabilized, contested and strategically mobilized by external and internal actors. In doing so, these studies demonstrate how sport as an empirical context is an underutilized arena for sharpening race and organizational behavior theories.
Purpose This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI)-related work is publicly framed in sport business job postings and whether dominant public AI frames and frame diversity vary by organization type and job function. Design/methodology/approach USA-based sport business job postings with AI-related keywords were collected from TeamWork Online across five data pulls (n = 594; deduplicated n = 298). A theory-informed directed content analysis applied a six-frame AI taxonomy to examine dominant frame, frame intensity and frame diversity in sport business job postings. Chi-square and Kruskal–Wallis tests assessed differences by organization type and job function. Findings AI-related job postings most often publicly frame AI through data-driven and/or analytical language, alongside secondary references to human-AI collaboration and responsible use. Public framing patterns vary by organization type and job function, while frame diversity differs by organization type but not by job function. Originality/value This study provides a systematic posting-level, multi-frame analysis of how AI-related work is publicly framed in sport business recruitment communication. By treating job postings as public-facing communicative artifacts, the study shows how employers signal role expectations, valued competencies and responsible-use concerns to prospective applicants.
Purpose Examining how predictive analytics may be used in smart tourism frameworks to anticipate and improve sports tourism visitor experiences is the aim of the research. The paper aims to examine four predictive models - logistic regression, support vector machine (SVM), artificial neural network (ANN) and random forest - to forecast visitors' intent to propose sports venues using the Cross-Industry Standard Process for Data Mining (CRISP-DM) technique. The research highlights logistic regression as the best model, finds important demographic and contextual variables that impact proposals and provides helpful recommendations for improving consumer satisfaction and strategic planning in sports tourism.Design/methodology/approach The CRISP-DM approach is used in this research to operationalize predictive analytics in sports tourism. Four classification models - logistic regression, SVM, ANN and random forest - were used to examine a dataset that has visitor records. Demographic, behavioral, contextual and experience-based features were among the variables. Metrics like area under the curve (AUC), accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score and Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) were used to assess the preprocessed data, which had been divided into 60% training and 40% testing sets. In a smart tourism framework, the most effective methodology was logistic regression, which correctly predicted travelers' intention to suggest sporting venues.Findings AUC, accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score and MCC = 1.000 were all ideal scores for logistic regression, which the research showed to perform more accurately than other models. Tourists' intention to suggest was influenced by a number of important features, including gender, country, event type, ticket type and season of travel. The venue was less likely to be recommended by male tourists, general ticket holders and visitors of summer events. Conversely, those who attended tennis matches, had very-important-person tickets and traveled during the winter shown more desire to suggest. These findings demonstrate how predictive analytics may improve decision-making and customize sports tourist experiences.Originality/value In a field with little empirical research, sports tourism, this study combines predictive analytics in an unconventional manner inside a smart tourism framework. The research provides a data-driven strategy for comprehending the recommendation behavior of tourists by using the CRISP-DM methodology and numerous machine learning models. For tourist planners and event organizers, the use of comparative model analysis and actual visitor data offers beneficial findings. The results not only pinpoint important factors that influence satisfaction but also direct focused tactics to enhance visitor experience and service delivery. By showing how predictive modeling may improve strategic choices in the ever-changing sports tourism industry, this research closes a significant gap.
Purpose This conceptual paper develops a theory-based explanation of how Saudi Arabia’s sports mega-event marketing may influence fan engagement and national brand image through two integrated touchpoints: stadium-based experience and screen/digital activation. It addresses a central boundary question in contemporary sport marketing: when do mega-event communications generate credible nation-brand value and when are they interpreted as sportswashing? Design/methodology/approach The study used a systematic narrative review and conceptual synthesis of 92 peer-reviewed and high-relevance institutional sources across sport management, sport tourism, nation branding, sports diplomacy, digital fan engagement, legitimacy theory and crisis communication. Searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and Business Source Complete, supplemented by backward/forward citation chasing. A transparent screening protocol, PRISMA-style flow, evidence matrix, coding logic and quality-appraisal procedure are reported. Findings The synthesis proposes a stadium-to-screen credibility framework in which event experience quality and digital activation influence perceived value, trust and multidimensional fan engagement. These mechanisms may strengthen national brand image only when audiences perceive the signals as credible, consistent and institutionally supported. Transparency, third-party validation, stakeholder alignment, crisis-response capability and audience context are theorised as key boundary conditions that reduce or intensify sportswashing attributions. Practical implications The framework advises policymakers, event organisers, leagues, sponsors, rights holders, tourism bodies, digital platforms and local operators to treat mega-event marketing as a credibility project rather than a promotional campaign alone. A lifecycle-based action matrix and resilience dashboard is proposed to support decision-making before, during and after events. Social implications The paper emphasises accountability, inclusion, community participation, labour standards, accessibility and distribution of benefits as social legitimacy conditions that shape whether mega-event marketing is perceived as authentic national development or reputational masking. Originality/value The paper contributes by clarifying the difference between national brand image and soft power, theorising sportswashing as an attribution and legitimacy process and integrating crisis-response logic into sport mega-event marketing theory.
Purpose This study examines how the relationship between uncertainty and performance varies across levels of organizational status. Specifically, it analyzes how status conditions the relationship between two distinct sources of uncertainty - firm-specific uncertainty arising from a firm's own production processes and partner-specific uncertainty originating from key external partners - and organizational performance.Design/methodology/approach The study draws on an unbalanced panel of Formula One constructors competing between 1993 and 1999. Using detailed race-level data, the analysis employs high-dimensional fixed-effects regression models to examine how status interacts with firm- and partner-specific uncertainty. Additional event-history analyses provide suggestive evidence regarding the underlying mechanisms of search behavior and access to resource quality.Findings The results indicate that status plays a dual role in the relationship between uncertainty and performance. High-status firms exhibit lower performance than low-status firms under conditions of firm-specific uncertainty, consistent with reduced problemistic search and weaker development of integration capabilities. In contrast, high-status firms exhibit higher performance under conditions of partner-specific uncertainty, consistent with exchange partners being more selective in their favor during such periods.Originality/value This study contributes to the literature by distinguishing between firm- and partner-specific uncertainty and demonstrating that organizational status differentially moderates their relationship with performance. By integrating behavioral theory of the firm with status-based theories of markets, the paper offers a more nuanced understanding of how organizations respond to uncertainty in competitive environments.
Purpose Is the cost of acquiring players in line with the performance on the field? Are there any systematic biases in domestic and foreign player valuations in the presence of temporal shift and panel persistence?Design/methodology/approach 2,547 player-season observations (2015-2024) were utilized by applying fixed effects (FE) regression to limit the effects of individual heterogeneity and valuation persistence. The methodology entails the construction of performance indices and temporal stability checks within an era and propensity score matching to control selection bias.Findings Domestic players are always able to perform better against foreign counterparts (81.2 vs. 74.6 index score) at a lower average cost (42.9%). The market requires a 21.6-40.8% premium which foreign players have but is not supported by statistical output. Low-cost domestic players have a 30.5% sporting ROI as compared to 3.0% of the high-cost foreign stars. Statistic parameters of performance a, b and g indicate that there is an upward trend in the statistic of bowling efficiency and aggression with time.Research limitations/implications Franchises can assume a hybrid strategy of conservative-continuity approach that will place the foreign spending to a range of 30-35% in terms of specialized role-gaps. The research results provide clear strategic clusters, which include assertive, conservative and continuity-focused, that predetermine long-term efficiency of investment. Some suggested improvements are ticketed prices based on roles and hybrid auction systems to tame the so-called winner curse.Originality/value This paper develops a performance-adjusted ROI framework for IPL player investments over a full decade, combining auction prices, detailed on-field metrics and franchise financial outcomes into a unified dataset of 2,547 player-seasons. It is the first study to simultaneously apply hedonic regression, a calibrated performance index and propensity score matching to isolate nationality-based pricing premiums in the IPL labor market. The findings reveal persistent, quantifiable overvaluation of foreign players and underpricing of domestic talent, challenging prevailing assumptions about marquee signings and offering an evidence-based template for more efficient squad-building and regulatory design in T20 leagues.
Purpose This article examines how governance structures and organisational practices shape the professional landscape of women's football, with particular attention to how they influence athletes' working conditions and career pathways at both the meso (institutional and organisational) and micro (athlete development and career experience) levels. Design/methodology/approach An integrative review was conducted following Whittemore and Knafl's five-step approach. The review analyses 37 peer-reviewed studies published between 2019 and 2023, identified through Web of Science™ and screened using Rayyan. Findings are organised through a multilevel analytical structure distinguishing meso-level governance, clubs and leagues, and micro-level athlete pathways and elite working conditions. Findings Professionalisation emerges as a gradual and uneven process shaped by governance priorities, organisational arrangements and gendered labour relations. Structural dependencies inherited from men's football reproduce asymmetries in investment, regulation and organisational capacity, constraining substantive change. At the micro level, players' pathways and employment conditions remain marked by dual-career pressures, precarious contracts and uneven access to welfare protections, even in high-visibility contexts. Overall, the evidence indicates that professionalisation cannot be inferred from competitive success or commercial growth alone but should be assessed through the labour and developmental conditions afforded to athletes. Originality/value The review consolidates a multilevel perspective that links institutional decisions, organisational practices and athletes' career conditions within a single interpretive frame, offering conceptual and practical foundations for more equitable, accountable and sustainable professional environments in women's football.
Purpose This review examines the intersection of Behavioural Science and sport fan decision-making, an underexplored area in Sport Management. It aims to identify opportunities to integrate Behavioural Science methodologies into research on fan behaviour, moving beyond traditional self-reported data to enhance understanding of fan cognition and consumption patterns. Design/methodology/approach A systematic review was conducted using the SPAR-4-SLR protocol. From 589 decision-making articles, 50 studies were identified as relevant to sport fan behaviour. These studies were analysed to assess methodological approaches, interdisciplinary collaboration and the prevalence of experimental designs, providing a comprehensive overview of current research practices in the field. Findings The review revealed three key issues: an overreliance on self-reported data, limited interdisciplinary collaboration and a scarcity of experimental designs. Methodologies common in consumer research, particularly observational and experimental approaches, remain significantly underutilised in Sport Management. The paper addresses these gaps by creating a new conceptual framework, aiming to enhance scientific understanding of fan behaviour and improve marketing effectiveness for sport organisations. Originality/value This review highlights the untapped potential of Behavioural Science to advance Sport Management research. By advocating for robust experimental and observational methodologies and interdisciplinary collaboration, it offers a framework for more nuanced, evidence-based insights into sport fan behaviour and identifies future research directions that can stimulate innovation in Sport marketing.
Purpose This study examines whether head coach scheduled pay, football program investment, and an in-season performance indicator are associated with winning percentage in NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) football, and whether conference type moderates the program investment–performance relationship. The study additionally demonstrates how scalable, AI-assisted data integration can support reproducible sport management research. Design/methodology/approach Using 1,373 team-season observations across thirteen competitive seasons (2010–2019 and 2022–2024), the study implements a reproducible data integration workflow that programmatically retrieves multi-level game data via Python APIs, engineers features and harmonizes identifiers in R, and stores integrated records in a relational SQLite database. Winning percentage serves as the dependent variable. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models evaluate the direct effects of coach pay, program spending, and season-average scoring margin, as well as a spending × conference interaction term to test moderation. Findings Regression results indicate that coach pay and program spending are positively associated with winning percentage in separate baseline models, while scoring margin exhibits a substantially stronger effect. In the full specification including all predictors simultaneously, the effects of financial inputs attenuate substantially and are weak or non-significant, suggesting that financial resources operate primarily through improvements in on-field performance rather than through a direct independent pathway. The interaction between spending and conference type is not statistically significant. Originality/value By integrating theory-driven hypotheses with a reproducible, AI-assisted data workflow spanning over a decade of FBS seasons, this study contributes to the intersection of sport finance, analytics, and data-driven decision-making in intercollegiate athletics, while offering a replicable methodological framework for future multi-source sport management research.
Purpose While esports is a rapidly growing industry, studies have revealed evidence of a racial divide. Utilizing racial tasking theory, this study aims to explore the apparent racial divide within intercollegiate esports. Design/methodology/approach The authors employed semi-structured interviews and utilized deductive qualitative analysis. Findings The results revealed a perceived racial divide in intercollegiate esports, with conditional meritocracy functioning as a key mechanism sustaining it. More specifically, the analysis identifies conditional meritocracy as a key ideological mechanism through which racial tasking is reproduced in esports settings. This study also provided practical implications, such as creating opportunities for racial minority gamers to engage in games of interest without incurring financial burdens. The study further provided future research options, suggesting the exploration of perceptions among stakeholders who have access to gamers in elementary or middle school age groups. Originality/value The originality of this study lies in being one of the few attempts to explore the perceived racial divide in intercollegiate esports through a specific theory, racial tasking theory rather than using grounded theory, which enabled authors to systematically test and extend existing theory in new contexts rather than relying on emergent grounded theory approaches.
Purpose In a sample of 360 players in the National Football League who were arrested for a crime, we investigated the degree to which player value impacts the likelihood of employment termination.Design/methodology/approach Because our outcome is dichotomous (employment terminated or not terminated), we used binary logistic regression in SPSS 25 to analyze the data (Wright, 1995), which came from archival data sources.Findings While individual performance and expected performance were found to generally reduce the likelihood of termination after arrest, arrests for intimate partner violence and DUI still significantly increased the likelihood of termination. We also find that watershed events - critical events in the organization's history - influence which kinds of violations are tolerated by the organization and which are not, and that expectation violations are treated differently after watershed events than they were prior.Originality/value This paper demonstrates how star performance influences individual-organization relationships, including the differential enforcement of organizational policy. The paper also shows how key events in an organizations history influence policy and behavioral change and extends the inducements-contributions framework by conceptualizing detriments and repellents. These ideas have implications for sport and business more broadly.
Purpose Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a significant technological priority across the sport industry; yet, scholarly engagement with its implications remains underdeveloped relative to the pace of adoption. This commentary pursues three interrelated objectives: to advance conceptual clarity regarding what AI is and how it operates; to examine its functional applications across key operational domains of sport organizations; and to surface the structural, ethical and governance dimensions that remain underexplored in existing scholarship. Design/methodology/approach This work presents conceptual commentary based on integrative review and critical analysis of existing literature. Findings Drawing on a five-category typology spanning descriptive, predictive, prescriptive, generative and agentic AI, the work maps applications across fan engagement, sport media, sponsorship, stadium operations and administrative functions. It further develops a political economy perspective that examines data ownership, organizational capabilities, competitive dynamics, structural inequality and labor market consequences as conditions shaping AI adoption in sport. The work argues that AI integration in sport is not a neutral process, and that rigorous, critically oriented scholarly inquiry is both necessary and urgent before the imperatives of adoption become institutionally embedded and resistant to scrutiny. Originality/value The value of this commentary lies in its integration of a political economy perspective into AI-in-sport discourse and its articulation of a structured research agenda that identifies key theoretical and empirical directions for future work.
Purpose The current study analyzed how a regulatory agency - the Direction Nationale du Contr & ocirc;le de Gestion (DNCG) - has adapted to institutional change. The DNCG is responsible for the financial regulation of French football competitions, in a context marked by the financialization of European football and the introduction of national regulations intended to contain this phenomenon.Design/methodology/approach We adopted a qualitative approach in which we analyzed semi-structured interviews with eight members of the DNCG, as well as the regulations issued by the DNCG.Findings Analyzing these interviews and regulations revealed how the DNCG has adapted. From a technical standpoint, the DNCG has expanded its authority and adopted new regulatory tools, while continuing to pursue its objective of ensuring that clubs remain solvent. Our results also highlight the persistence of a liberal regulatory philosophy that only partially challenges the financialization of the sector.Originality/value Often considered drivers of change, regulatory agencies also adapt in response to changes in their institutional environment. The current study used a multi-level perspective to assess the consequences of supranational institutional change on one such national regulatory agency. Our analysis enabled us to identify the ways in which the DNCG has responded to new prerogatives set by the legislator in response to the increased financialization of professional football.
Purpose This study aims to examine the dual role of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in elite European football by assessing their financial relevance for clubs and their governance-related implications for fan engagement and legitimacy. It explores how NFTs operate at the intersection of digital revenue innovation and contested issues of transparency, accountability and participation.Design/methodology/approach The study adopts a mixed-methods design. Quantitative financial data were drawn from the Deloitte Football Money League for the top 20 European clubs over the period 2021-2024 and analysed to assess the scale and distribution of NFT-related revenues. Qualitative data were collected from publicly accessible social media platforms and fan forums, focusing on discussions related to NFTs, fan tokens, governance practices and perceived risks. A thematic analysis was conducted, and findings from both data strands were integrated to enable triangulation and contextual interpretation.Findings The results indicate that NFT-related revenues remain economically marginal and uneven across elite European football clubs, with no clear evidence of a stabilising effect on financial sustainability. At the same time, qualitative analysis shows that NFTs carry social and governance significance that exceeds their direct financial contribution. Fan discourse consistently frames NFT initiatives in relation to transparency, cultural meaning and accountability, revealing tensions between club-led digital monetisation strategies and supporter expectations.Practical implications The findings suggest that NFT initiatives require careful strategic and governance consideration. While NFTs may offer limited supplementary revenue opportunities, their implementation has implications for fan trust and institutional legitimacy. Greater transparency and clearer governance arrangements may help align digital innovation with supporter expectations.Originality/value By integrating financial analysis with fan discourse, this study offers one of the first systematic examinations of NFTs in football that connects economic outcomes with governance and legitimacy concerns. The findings contribute to debates on digital innovation in sport by demonstrating that the significance of NFTs lies less in their financial scale than in their institutional and social implications.
Purpose Risk management has become a critical component of sport governance; however, empirical evidence shows that its systematic implementation within sport organisations remains limited, particularly in non-profit entities. Previous studies have addressed the issue only partially, focusing on specific contexts and failing to generate validated and multidimensional instruments. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a standardised questionnaire (KRI - Key Risk Indicators) to assess risk management in sport clubs and federations, integrating theoretical, empirical and expert-based evidence. Design/methodology/approach A sequential mixed-methods design (QUAN -> QUAL -> QUAN -> QUAL -> QUAN) was employed, comprising a scoping review (n = 125 articles), expert validation (n = 8), a pilot survey (n = 153 organisations), semi-structured interviews with sport managers (n = 60) and a weighting process with an expert panel (n = 38).Findings The final instrument was structured into 9 dimensions and 77 risk indicators, covering governance, sporting dimension, marketing, human resources, technology, integrity, finance, facilities and contextual risks. Psychometric analyses confirmed excellent internal consistency across all dimensions (alpha and omega > 0.85).Research limitations/implications The KRI provides a validated framework for future cross-national and longitudinal studies on organisational risk and governance, advancing theory and standardising measurement in sport management research. Practical implications It offers sport organisations a reliable diagnostic tool to identify, prioritise and manage risks proactively, supporting evidence-based decision-making and organisational sustainability. Originality/value To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first validated multidimensional instrument for assessing risk management in sport organisations, bridging academic research and applied governance practice.
Purpose The purpose of this study is to systematically compare large-scale YouTube discourse surrounding two Super Bowl halftime shows by identifying recurring discussion themes, quantifying evaluative tone, and assessing whether high engagement metrics reflect genuinely favorable reception. Specifically, it contrasts an entertainment-centered performance (Usher) with a more symbolic, contested performance (Kendrick Lamar) to examine whether discourse structure and sentiment integrity vary across performance types. Design/methodology/approach We analyzed 138,734 YouTube comments from the official NFL videos of the two halftime shows (Usher: N = 26,982; Kendrick Lamar: N = 111,752). The analysis combined automated topic modeling, human-reviewed theme labeling, frame classification, multilingual sentiment analysis, and a Sentiment Integrity Index (SII) designed to distinguish attention from approval. Findings Usher’s discourse was highly consolidated (88.8% on a single topic) and almost exclusively “hedonic,” resulting in high net positivity. Conversely, Lamar’s discourse was less concentrated across 103 topics and multiple interpretive frames (Hedonic, Symbolic, Hybrid), leading to a more mixed and contested evaluative structure. Crucially, while Lamar had higher reach, Usher’s “sentiment integrity” was higher, demonstrating that massive engagement does not always equal favorable reception. Originality/value The study contributes to sport management and media research by demonstrating how interpretive frames shape audience evaluation in platform ecosystems. It introduces the Sentiment Integrity Index (SII) as a novel tool for decoupling raw engagement from actual sentiment quality. This approach provides a scalable method for mapping contested symbolic sites and evaluating the public construction of cultural meaning in global sporting spectacles.
Purpose - This viewpoint introduces the "Equity Architecture" framework as a constructive tool for designing equitable leadership pipelines in global sport. Design/methodology/approach - Comparative analysis of the NFL's Rooney Rule and the FA's Football Leadership Diversity Code, drawing on secondary data and institutional theory.Findings Five critical design principles for effective equity policy: mandated participation, linking process to outcome targets, balanced incentives, full-pipeline scope and institutionalized external advocacy. Research limitations/implications - The analysis is descriptive rather than causal. The IFR's mandatory reporting data will allow quasi-experimental tests of the framework's predictions over coming reporting cycles.Practical implications The framework provides an actionable checklist for club executives, league administrators and statutory regulators - including the UK's new Independent Football Regulator - to design evidence-based diversity policies. Social implications - Equitable leadership pipelines convert diverse playing talent into representative governance, with relevance beyond sport to any sector where voluntary diversity commitments have plateaued and statutory regulation is emerging. Originality/value - Moves beyond documenting leadership disparities to offer a replicable, evidence-based blueprint for systemic policy design applicable across global sport contexts.
Purpose The research investigates how modern broadcast technologies such as instant replays, ultra-motion visuals, drone and spider cam views, and AR-based graphics contribute to viewer engagement in the world's biggest cricket league, the Indian Premier League (IPL). It specifically examines how perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived enjoyment and trust on these technologies drive fan engagement, while also analysing the role of social influence and facilitating conditions as moderating factors. Design/methodology/approach Building on the technology acceptance model (TAM), the study proposes an extended framework to assess viewer interaction with televisual features. A mixed methodology approach was applied where qualitative data were collected from 10 individuals who have continuously watched IPL for the last five seasons. Data were also collected from 400 IPL viewers using a structured survey, and relationships among variables were tested using Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS) and Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS). The study further evaluates how social influence and facilitating conditions impact the effectiveness of these technological features on fan engagement. Findings The analysis shows that perceived enjoyment, trust and perceived usefulness are the strongest predictors of fan engagement, while perceived ease of use also plays meaningful roles. Facilitating conditions such as access to compatible devices or a stable Internet enhance the influence of enjoyment. Meanwhile, social influence intensifies the impact of both perceived usefulness and trust, suggesting that fan engagement is shaped not just by technology, but by the social ecosystem surrounding it. Social implications Technological innovation in the IPL has broader societal implications within an emerging market context such as India, where disparities in digital access and technological literacy remain pronounced. As advanced broadcast features become integral to fan engagement, the availability of affordable smart devices, stable Internet connectivity and intuitive platform design determines the extent to which diverse socio-economic groups can meaningfully participate in enriched viewing experiences. Uneven infrastructure may inadvertently widen the digital divide, limiting immersive engagement to urban and technologically equipped audiences. At the same time, the culturally embedded and collective nature of sports consumption in India, which is characterized by communal viewing, peer discussions, and social media interactions, shapes how technology is interpreted and embraced. Therefore, broadcasters and technology providers must design solutions that are not only innovative but also accessible, linguistically adaptable and culturally resonant, ensuring that technological advancement translates into inclusive and socially embedded digital participation rather than selective access. Originality/value This study adds a fresh perspective to sports media research by highlighting how immersive broadcast technologies influence fan experiences. It offers practical insights for sports broadcasters and event organizers looking to deepen viewer engagement through strategic tech integration.
Purpose Amid increasing focus on the governance of football clubs, this paper develops the first taxonomy of club owners, usually the dominant decision-makers, taking an impact-on-club based approach which can be significantly positive or significantly negative, to develop an understanding of football club ownership beyond current business model orientated approaches. Design/methodology/approach An archival research approach was undertaken to identify relevant club owner characteristics that had reliable data and were objectively measurable, while concurrently applying them to English football club owners across the top six English leagues – those which are under the remit of England’s Independent Football Regulator. Findings The research creates a taxonomy identifying 36 possible ownership types by applying the final metrics of financial approach, risk appetite, decision-making practice and prior affiliation. By concurrently applying the taxonomy to English football clubs, only 21 were seen in practice. Most English clubs have owners who are financial benefactors, autocratic, risk seeking and newcomers to the football club’s locality. Practical implications The taxonomy presented in this paper aids academic knowledge and understanding of football club owners and can also contribute to practice by providing a practical assessment of club owner performance and provide a potential basis for setting governance parameters by clubs and league authorities. Originality/value This is the first paper to develop a taxonomy of football club ownership.
