Recently, more attention has been given to the need for culturally and linguistically responsive assessments, but little empirical work has examined how writing measures treat students' use of nonmainstream American English (NMAE). Guided by Dis/ability Critical Race Theory and Quantitative Critical Race Theory, this study interrogated potential linguistic bias in curriculum-based measurement in written expression. Specifically, we analyzed the correct minus incorrect writing sequences (CIWS) metric, which is widely used to monitor writing development but is normed on general American English conventions. A total of 428 compositions from students in Grades 3 to 5 were scored using both the original CIWS rules and a culturally responsive, modified set of rules designed to not penalize NMAE features. Multilevel models revealed that students whose writing included NMAE features received disproportionately lower scores under the original scoring system, even when controlling for writing productivity. The modified procedure significantly reduced this bias, producing scores that supported more equitable interpretation of students' writing without penalizing NMAE features. Findings provide empirical evidence that conventional CIWS scoring embeds linguistic bias, but that responsive scoring modifications can mitigate these inequities. This work advances linguistic justice in assessment and offers practical implications for educators, school psychologists, and speech-language pathologists.
Spanish-English-speaking multilinguals (MLs) with developmental language disorders (DLD) have greater difficulty with verb morphology compared to their typically developing peers. Similar patterns of errors are observed in both monolinguals and MLs with DLD. However, there are more studies that have explored the effectiveness of grammar interventions targeting verb morphology for monolinguals compared to MLs. Moreover, there are even fewer studies that compare the effectiveness of implicit and explicit approaches used in grammar intervention. Therefore, in this study with Spanish-English MLs with and without DLD in grades 3 to 5, we evaluated, using an adapted alternating treatment single-case design, the (1) effectiveness of implicit versus explicit approaches to grammar intervention that targeted the inflectional past tense -ed and third person singular -s and (2) efficiency of the implicit and explicit approaches for acquiring these grammatical morphemes. Five of the 8 participants showed stronger outcomes with explicit instruction, demonstrated by greater level changes, more rapid response to treatment, and consistent progress toward mastery, with mean accuracy approximately 5% higher than during implicit instruction. In contrast, several participants benefited more from implicit instruction, possibly due to reduced cognitive load and the influence of morphological frequency. Clinically, these results highlight the importance of tailoring intervention approaches, as responsiveness may vary depending on learners' processing capacity and the linguistic characteristics of the target forms.
Language varieties such as African American English and Southern American English are well-established dialects of English with historic importance and modern cultural capital. While features of language varieties, such as nonmainstream dialects, are well documented in children's spoken language, less has been studied about child dialect speakers' writing in academic settings. In this study, we explored the features and frequency of use of African American English and Southern American English in a sample of 250 second- and third-grade students located in the southeastern part of the US. We analyzed and compared nonmainstream dialect production in an oral narrative task and between 2 different written language samples, one elicited by a narrative prompt and the other by an expository prompt. Importantly, we discuss implications for teachers and other practitioners to consider when working with diverse students.
Across dialects of English, children with developmental language disorder demonstrate weaknesses in both tense morphology and complex syntax, yet intervention targets often address these domains separately. This study examined whether clinician input during a complex syntax intervention provides rich and varied models of tense morphology. Using a secondary analysis of data from 1 arm of a randomized controlled teletherapy trial, we analyzed clinician utterances during an intervention targeting complement clauses embedded in science instruction for 10 children with developmental language disorder (4-7 years old). A total of 1753 clinician utterances containing complement clauses were coded. Clinicians produced 2491 tense morphemes, with regular past tense occurring most frequently, followed by verbal -s and irregular past tense. Past tense morphemes occurred primarily in independent clauses, whereas present tense forms occurred more often in dependent clauses; copula and auxiliary BE forms were largely confined to dependent clauses. Clinicians produced 47 unique matrix verbs, most with overt tense marking. Results suggest that complement clause interventions can simultaneously support tense morphology through dense, structurally informative input, supporting integrated approaches to grammar intervention.
The purpose of this study was to examine how Hispanic/Latin & eacute; individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) perceived changes in their communication, social connectedness, and mental health, with the ultimate goal of establishing initial guidelines for the development of culturally responsive support groups for this population. Fifteen Hispanic/Latin & eacute; individuals with PD from within and outside the United States participated in 5 focus groups. Transcripts of the video-recorded groups were analyzed qualitatively using reflexive thematic analysis. We generated 3 primary themes from our data set. Although the vast majority of individuals with PD reported changes in their communication, speech treatment services were not ubiquitous, and linguistic barriers to health care were present within the United States. Bonding among participants through shared experiences living with PD and educating those without PD about the disease were perceived as positive means to increase social connectedness. Spirituality, religiosity, and gratefulness were meaningful resources and strategies to foster mental health. Support groups for Hispanic/Latin & eacute; individuals with PD should maximize educational and social opportunities for this population, as well as for their care partners, to address changes in communication, social connectedness, and mental health.
This pilot study examined the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness of the +Language is Medicine (+LiM) caregiver-implemented language intervention, a culturally grounded, caregiver-coaching early language intervention for Din & eacute; (Navajo) toddlers with developmental delay. The program integrates evidence-based language facilitation strategies, Enhanced Milieu Teaching and Hanen's "It Takes Two to Talk," within a precision home visiting framework. Twenty-seven caregiver-toddler (9-24 months) dyads (n = 27) were enrolled from the Northern Agency of the Navajo Nation, with 15 dyads completing full baseline and post-intervention assessments. The intervention consisted of 5 weekly, home-based sessions delivered by trained Tribal Home Visitors (THVs) supervised by a speech-language pathologist. Treatment fidelity was monitored, with THVs achieving >= 90% adherence. Measures included the Early Communication Indicator, Bayley-4, and caregiver confidence surveys. Toddlers demonstrated significant gains in expressive language (P = .017) from baseline to post-intervention, sustained at a 3-month follow-up assessment. Receptive language showed positive trends. Caregivers reported increased confidence and skill in supporting communication. Retention rate overall was 56%, with most attrition related to family relocation or scheduling conflicts. +LiM is a feasible, acceptable, and potentially effective approach to supporting early communication development in Navajo toddlers with early signs of DD. Its integration of precision tribal visiting principles and cultural adaptations offers a promising model for EI service delivery in rural reservation-based communities.
This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a 6-week bilingual (English-Spanish) narrative intervention on the language macrostructure of 3 children who are hard of hearing (HH), aged 6 to 8. Using an adapted alternating treatment design, children received 12 sessions, 6 in each language, where they worked on retelling narratives. In addition, children were encouraged to create personal narratives at baseline and maintenance phases. The intervention was effective for increasing retelling scores in Participants 1 and 3's weakest language, while maintaining their skills in the stronger language. They also demonstrated increases in their personal narratives, indicating a potential generalization effect of the intervention. No intervention effect was observed for Participant 2. The families valued the intervention highly, especially in Spanish, given the scarcity of bilingual therapies available to them. In conclusion, the bilingual narrative intervention seems promising for increasing language macrostructure in children who are HH.
Autistic children's play has routinely been determined to deviate from accepted trajectories and patterns and is consistently interpreted as a deficit requiring remediation. An extensive review of the literature on functional play in autistic children led to the identification of 10 articles comparing autistic and typically developing children's functional play patterns. Data were extracted regarding the duration, frequency, diversity, and integration of structured and free functional play in autistic children. The results indicated the majority of studies found that autistic children do engage in functional play. Significant differences were identified in the diversity and integration of autistic children's functional play skills. The theory of monotropism is used to interpret these findings using a neurodiversity affirming approach. Using this approach, innovative intervention practices and areas for future research are discussed.
This article explores the potential of technology-enhanced dialogic reading (DR) approaches to enhance language skills in young children via examining evidence from systematic reviews and extant technology integration research plus a preliminary study of caregivers' perceptions of digital tutorials designed to promote DR. Systematic reviews indicate DR's positive impact on language skills. While limited studies are available, existing research indicates that technology-enhanced DR approaches may be equally effective. The preliminary study we describe reveals that digital tutorials increased the use of DR strategies and enhanced caregiver engagement. Technology-enhanced DR may be a valuable approach to support early language skills by maximizing access, personalizing pacing, and incorporating interactive elements. Integrating digital tools into DR practices holds promise, especially for children with disabilities and those from low-income backgrounds.
The purpose of this study was to examine the memory abilities of bilingual children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). We compare groups across short-term, working memory, and declarative long-term systems in the verbal and nonverbal domains. The study also analyzes how memory abilities are related to children's expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge. Forty-eight Catalan-Spanish children with DLD (mean age = 8.10 years) and 57 typically developing (TD) controls (mean age = 9.1 years) participated in the study. A variety of memory tests were administered to assess components of verbal and nonverbal working and declarative (episodic and semantic) memory. Children with DLD were significantly less accurate than TD children at performing all short-term and working memory tasks. Group differences in verbal declarative memory disappeared when short-term/working memory was controlled for. With nonverbal declarative memory, group differences were found in immediate and delayed recall recognition even after nonverbal working memory was controlled for. Working and declarative memory scores were significant predictors of children's expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge. The findings of this study show that language difficulties in children with DLD have various relationships with different memory abilities. Clinical implications are also discussed.
Research suggests that children who stutter may be at risk for increased social exclusion, bullying, and peer rejection compared to children who do not stutter. Friendship, defined by reciprocal, positive relationships with others, has been shown to increase well-being, resilience, and self-worth. The purpose of this study was to explore advice on making friends from the perspective of children who stutter. Twenty school-aged children who stutter participated in structured interviews soliciting advice for making friends for a new student who stutters and their classmates. Interviews were transcribed and coded via reflexive thematic analysis. Prevalence, directionality, and context of themes were analyzed. Thematic coding revealed 13 themes within the advice for making friends for children who do and do not stutter, and 4 unique response styles. Themes included both stuttering-specific advice and general advice applicable to all children. Guidance provided by the participants lends preliminary support to the notion that, from the perspective of children who stutter, increasing one’s self-perception as a communicator, including sharing about stuttering and stuttering openly, may facilitate the development of skills needed to initiate friendships, and consequently, the well-being of children who stutter.
Friendship is a critical component of well-being, offering emotional support, shared experiences, and opportunities for personal growth. This paper explores key differences in communication dynamics between friends and strangers, emphasizing the systemic mismatch between existing AAC design and the relational needs of friendship interactions. The paper discusses innovative approaches to AAC development, such as enhanced personalization, emotional expressiveness, and multimodal communication tools, to foster more meaningful social connections for AAC users. Clinical and research priorities, including participatory design, qualitative methodologies, and longitudinal studies, are outlined to inform future assessment and intervention efforts by speech-language pathologists. This paper advocates for reimagining AAC as a tool that not only facilitates functional communication but also nurtures inclusion, belonging, and friendship.
The present study explores the relationships among executive functions (EFs) (working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility), number of friends, friendship stability and friendship quality in neurotypical (NT) children and peers with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or dyslexia. The participants were 192 children ( M age = 9.77, SD = 1.22) who responded to EFs tasks (working memory, Trail Making Test, Stroop test) and to the Friendship Quality Questionnaire. Results showed that NT children were significant better in all EFs, while children with dyslexia outperformed ADHD children only in working memory and cognitive flexibility. NT children had more mutual friends, longer-lasting best friendships with more positive qualities, followed by children with dyslexia who achieved higher scores than children with ADHD. Additionally, cognitive flexibility and working memory were predictive of all friendship variables in the three groups of children. Our findings contribute to scientific knowledge, as research linking EFs with friendships is very limited for children with and without learning disabilities.
Purpose Peer network interventions support social interaction among students with autism and their peers and may be able to support reciprocal friendship development. However, little research has attempted to examine the nature of relationships that form within them. This study utilized a convergent parallel mixed methods design to explore how peers related to classmates with autism and limited speech when they participated together in a play-based peer network intervention. Methods Participants were four elementary-aged children with autism who were minimally speaking and eight of their peers. Data were collected through interviews with peers (qualitative) and observational measurement of shared play and joint engagement during play sessions (quantitative). Results When integrated, qualitative and quantitative data revealed three key findings: (1) some, but not all, peers formed close, reciprocal relationships with the focus students with autism; (2) the ways that peers subjectively described their relationships did not necessarily align with what play and engagement looked like; and (3) peers who demonstrated greater interest in learning from their classmate with autism also had more friendship reciprocity and joint engagement during play. Conclusion Taken together, these findings provide important implications for future research and practice for utilizing peer network interventions to support opportunities for authentic friendship development.
Purpose: Communication is an essential ingredient in friendship that is profoundly impacted by aphasia, a communication disability commonly caused by stroke. People with aphasia want to maintain the friends that they had before aphasia’s onset, but this proves difficult. The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of friends who have remained since the onset of aphasia to better understand how to support these relationships. Methods: We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with eight participants who currently had a friend living with aphasia. Results: The following themes were constructed using reflexive thematic analysis: “I don’t know what to do”; “It’s hard to see the changes”; “Here’s what worked”; and “Just do it”. Discussion/Conclusions: Findings support the incorporation of friends in comprehensive aphasia rehabilitation, as friends of people living with aphasia provided key insights. Friends require more education and training about aphasia, about how to communicate with someone who has aphasia, and about expectations for recovery. Employing preferred supported conversation techniques, reflecting on the friendship, and sharing mutually enjoyable nonlanguage activities appear critical to friendship maintenance for people living with aphasia.
High-quality oral language interventions support children’s readiness for formal literacy instruction, and yet guidance for multilingual classrooms is not available. To address this gap, we drew on the empirical literature on linguistically diverse learners, classroom linguistic environments, and usage-based theories to identify principles for recommended pedagogical practices. We next examined how teachers explained their oral language teaching and what they said after delivering an intervention based on recommended practice. Using a reflexive approach to qualitative interview and questionnaire data, we found some convergence but also areas of limited overlap between recommended practice and teacher professional knowledge. Supporting child talk was seen to serve a motivational-affective purpose more than the cognitive-linguistic purposes implicit in research-informed recommended practices. Based on insights from specialized literature and distillations of professional knowledge, we propose a heuristic framework named Adopting Quality for School Readiness (AQSR). We also discuss uses for the AQSR framework and outstanding questions for future research.
