A survey on the fauna of Opiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was conducted in the north-central region (2010-2011) and Khuzestan Province, southwestern Iran (2016–2017). Specimens were collected using Malaise traps, leading to the identification of 32 species. Among these, Apodesmia ocellata (Wesmael, 1835), Opiostomus (Opiostomus) griffithsi (Fischer, 1962), and Xynobius (Xynobius) comatus (Wesmael, 1835) and Psyttalia (Psyttalia) romani (Fahringer, 1935) are recorded for the first time in Iran. Furthermore, twenty species are reported as new provincial records. A brief diagnosis accompanied by illustrations is provided for these new records in Iran.
Dodartia Dodartia orientalis L. (Scrophulariaceae) is an invasive perennial weed that has been investigated as a medicinal plant species. There are no comprehensive studies on the biology of this weed. Seven experiments on seeds and rhizomes were conducted in the laboratory and greenhouse at the Weed Research Department of the Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection in 2018 and 2019. The results showed that dodartia seed viability was 62.5%. The optimum constant and alternating temperatures for seed germination were 20 °C and 15/25 °C, respectively. Alternating temperature was more appropriate than constant temperature for dodartia seed germination. The use of concentrated sulfuric acid (98%) for 2 minutes was the best stimulus for Dodartia seed germination. Conversely, gibberellin did not stimulate seed germination. The seeds germinated at NaCl concentrations < 300 mM. The study of dodartia vegetative reproduction under the effect of various environmental factors showed that the optimal planting depths and lengths for rhizome emergence were 2.5 cm and 15 cm, respectively. Rhizomes did not emerge in response to salt stress (for all studied NaCl concentrations).Additionally, the planting depth and smaller rhizome size lead to a longer time to shoot emergence. The study of cold stress effects revealed that Dodartia rhizome emerged after 24 and 48 hours of incubation at 0 °C and -5 °C. Dodartia rhizomes emerged after 24, 48, and 72 hours at 25 °C, and after 48 hours at 0 °C and -5 °C. However, keeping rhizomes at -10 °C resulted in their loss of viability. Our findings indicate that breaking rhizomes into small pieces and deep burial are crucial for effectively controlling Dodartia growth.
Abstract: Weeds are considered one of the most significant challenges in managing urban green spaces, and controlling them is one of the most costly maintenance operations. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of controlling weeds in rose shrub green spaces using a mulch-herbicide combination. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 11 treatments and three replications. Treatments included: the application of trifluralin and pendimethalin herbicides alone at a dose of 2 L ha -1, incorporated into the soil surface, and the application of each herbicide at the recommended dose in combination with wood chip mulch (applied to the soil surface under a 5 cm mulch layer, application of the mulch-herbicide combination on the soil surface and application of the mulch-herbicide combination incorporated into the topsoil) along with control treatments of mulch alone, hand weeding, and no weed control throughout the season. Weed sampling was performed at intervals of 15, 30, 45, and 60 days after treatment application. Based on the results, the lowest weed density and dry weight were observed in the combined mulch-herbicide treatments. Trifluralin herbicide showed greater weed control efficacy than pendimethalin, both when applied alone and in combination with mulch. The application of trifluralin and pendimethalin alone had adverse effects on rose flowering, but combining them with wood chip mulch mitigated their impact on rose growth. According to the results, combining trifluralin and pendimethalin herbicides with wood chip mulch can be an effective option for controlling weeds in green spaces, particularly in rose gardens.
One of the most destructive pests affecting stored legumes is the bruchid beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). This study investigated the fumigant toxicity, oviposition deterrence, and repellency of three essential oils (EOs), including Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum (L.), and Melaleuca viminalis (Sol. ex Gaertn.) against C. maculatus adults. The lethal concentrations (LC50) for the EOs were determined as 1.727 µL/L air for T. ammi, 1.219 µL/L air for C. cyminum, and 1.622 µL/L air for M. viminalis, with a dose-dependent increase in adult mortality with rising EO concentrations. Oviposition deterrence was assessed on various bean types, including white kidney beans, common beans, cowpeas, navy beans, and red kidney beans. Notably, T. ammi oil at 5 µL/g of seeds completely inhibited oviposition, whereas 2 µL/g resulted in 88-94% inhibition. In contrast, M. viminalis oil showed the least deterrence at the same concentration, ranging from 60% to 77%. The control group exhibited significant variation in egg-laying across bean types, with cowpeas showing the highest egg count, followed by white kidney and common beans. All EOs effectively reduced both egg numbers and hatch rates. The repellent efficacy was highest in treated cowpeas, with C. cyminum oil exhibiting a notable repellent activity of 80%, compared to 46.66% for T. ammi and 33.33% for M. viminalis oils. Our findings underscore the potential of these oils as natural alternatives for managing C. maculatus infestations in stored legumes.
One of the employed formulations in the biological control of broomrape is the application of a Pesta granular formulation using semolina, sucrose, and kaolin. In this study, the efficacy of Pseta granular formulation of Fusarium oxysporum by using 3, 5, and 10% (w/w) Psyllium seed mucilage (PSM) on Egyptian broomrape Phelipanche aegyptiaca (Pers.) Pomel. control was investigated. Natural materials were used to stimulate the germination and growth of fungal spores by providing more available foodstuffs and moisture (during the dew period) for the spores. For this purpose, an experiment was conducted in the research greenhouse during the spring and summer of 2020. The results of this study showed that the application of PSM as mucilage Pesta granules (MPGS) resulted in more effective control of Egyptian broomrape, thereby increasing the fresh and dry weight of the tomato. The lowest dry weight of Egyptian broomrape (0.22 g pot-1) and the highest dry weight of tomato (27.20 g pot-1) were observed under MPG3 treatment (10% w/w). The highest dry weight of Egyptian broomrape (1.40 g pot-1) and the lowest dry weight of tomato (21.12 g pot-1) were obtained under the MPG2 treatment (5% w/w), which was not significantly different from the control treatment (1.34 g pot-1). It was concluded that the application of PSM at 10% w/w may increase the efficacy of the Pesta granule formulation in controlling Egyptian broomrape in tomatoes.
Stripe (yellow) rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. Tritici (Pst), is a globally devastating wheat disease and a critical yield-limiting factor in Iran, often resulting in severe production losses and necessitating costly chemical interventions. The deployment of host resistance remains the most economical and sustainable management strategy. This study aimed to identify different types of resistance to stripe rust among dryland wheat genotypes to support cultivar improvement programs. A collection of 233 dryland wheat genotypes (comprising 120 winter bread wheat, 64 spring bread wheat, and 49 durum wheat) was evaluated for adult plant resistance (APR) under field conditions at the Ardabil Agricultural Research Station, Iran. Parallel seedling resistance screenings against two prevalent Pst pathotypes (6E6A+, Yr27 and 142E158A+, Yr27) were conducted under controlled greenhouse conditions. The results revealed a spectrum of resistance responses. Forty-six genotypes (19.7%) exhibited all-stage resistance (ASR) at the seedling level against both pathotypes, suggesting the presence of known seedling resistance genes such as Yr3b, Yr4, Yr5, Yr10, Yr15, YrSP, YrCV, YrSD, or other unidentified genes. Fourteen genotypes were susceptible as seedlings to at least one pathotype but displayed a low relative area under the disease progress curve (rAUDPC) value (0-10) in the field, indicating effective APR. Another 10 genotypes, susceptible at the seedling stage, showed moderate rAUDPC values (11-30), characteristic of slow-rusting (SR) resistance. The remaining 163 genotypes were highly susceptible (high rAUDPC) in the field, regardless of their seedling response. The resistant genotypes identified in this study, particularly those with APR and SR characteristics, represent valuable genetic resources for breeding programs aimed at pyramiding multiple resistance genes to develop durable resistance and achieve long-term control of stripe rust in Iran.
The pistachio psyllid, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer, is one of the most destructive pests of pistachio trees in Iran. This study evaluated the efficacy of five chemical compounds including abamectin (EC 1.8%), acetamiprid (SP 20%), hexaflumuron (EC 10%), hexaflumuron (EC 10%) + abamectin (EC 1.8%), and thiamethoxam (SC 24%) at concentrations of 0.6 ml/L, 0.25 g/L, 0.7 ml/L, 0.5 + 0.3 ml/L, and 0.4 ml/L, respectively. The insecticides were applied at two different timings: early control (second week of May) and late control (fourth week of June) in two pistachio orchards in Isfahan Province, Iran. Nymphal mortality was recorded one day before spraying and at 3, 7, 14, and 21 days post-treatment. In both application times, thiamethoxam and abamectin exhibited the highest and lowest insecticidal efficacy, respectively. The early control was more efficient than the late control in all treatments. Therefore, early application of thiamethoxam is recommended for optimal chemical control of pistachio psyllid.
The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), poses a significant threat to beet plants, adversely affecting their yield. This study assessed the demographic parameters of this pest on seven commercial fodder beet cultivars, including “Kyros”, “1025”, “Geryty”, “Alianka”, “Laciana”, “Kara”, and “Enermax” under controlled laboratory conditions (27 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 5% RH, 16:8 h L: D). We selected 70 eggs, each less than 12 hours old, from a laboratory-reared generation and monitored their development, mortality, and oviposition daily until the death of the last individual. Data were analyzed using age-stage two-sex life table approach. The duration of the immature stages varied significantly among cultivars, with the total developmental period ranging from 23.79 days on “1025” to 33.25 days on “Laciana”. Immature survival rates also differed, with the highest survival recorded for “1025” (88.57%) and the lowest for “Kyros” (37.14%). Net reproductive rates (R0) were highest for “Alianka” (385.81 offspring) and lowest for “Laciana” (110.97 offspring). The intrinsic rate of increase (r) varied across cultivars, with values of 0.149, 0.214, 0.160, 0.180, 0.125, 0.156, and 0.193. Our findings indicate that “1025” is the most susceptible cultivar to the beet armyworm, while “Laciana” is the most resistant. These results are valuable for developing targeted beet armyworm management programs in different fodder beet cultivation regions.
In Iran, Sunn Pest Eurygaster integriceps is a major economic pest of wheat and barley. Current chemical control relies on targeting overwintering adults in wheat fields, requiring precise and efficient population assessments. While sweep-net sampling is commonly used, it lacks a strong theoretical basis. Therefore, this study was conducted to address this gap. Overwintered adults of the Sunn Pest population were sampled from wheat fields in five provinces by sweep net in early May 2005. The Menhinick model was developed to estimate overwintered adult Sunn Pest density from sweep-net catch. This method involved sweeping a known area multiple times between 9 AM and noon at half-hour intervals to establish a decreasing trend in numbers, which was then used to estimate the total population size through linear regression. This data also allowed estimating the number of sweep strokes required to cover 1 m². The number of strokes required to sample the overwintered adult Sunn Pest population density in one m² of wheat field ranged from 7.1 to 8.4, with a median of approximately eight sweeps, equivalent to one m².
Designing a fast, inexpensive, and easy method for on-site detection of pesticide residues is very important. In the present research, a sensitive nanobiosensor has been designed based on gold colloidal nanoparticles that could detect organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides. The biosensor was synthesized using gold plasmonic nanoparticles chemically grown on grain particles and was optimized in the presence of different concentrations and volumes of aptamer, salt, etc. To detect pesticides, this nanobiosensor was used to detect Trichlorfon and diazinon (OP) and carbofuran and pirimicarb (Carb) pesticides were used. Upon interaction with the pesticides, the nanobiosensor changed markedly in appearance and color, which was visible to the naked eye. The results show that the sensitivity of this nanobiosensor is lowest to diazinon and highest to carbofuran over time. In the presence of Trichlorfon, the nanobiosensor initially designed shows significant morphological changes in the nanostructures. The incubation time for pesticide samples with the nanobiosensor is about 10-15 minutes. Another interesting potential of colorimetric nanobiosensors is the extreme sensitivity of surface plasmon resonance in gold nanostructures to the surrounding media, which can be functionalized with specific biomolecules for targeted detection. Due to the ease of synthesis, indigenous production, ease of functionalization, maintenance of biomolecule stability on the surface, and the ability to detect pesticides quickly and visually at the lowest concentrations of analytes, there is strong potential to replace this new method with conventional methods.
Walnut aphids, the small walnut aphid Chromaphis juglandicola (Kaltenbach), and the large walnut aphid Panaphis juglandis (Goeze) are economic pests of walnut trees in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari province Southwestern Iran. The population fluctuations of walnut aphids and their natural enemies were studied under field conditions over two successive years, 2022 and 2023. The sampling unit was a cluster of five leaves. A total of 100 samples were taken weekly from all strata upon ten chosen trees. In both years, the small walnut aphid population was continuously increasing and reached its maximum density during mid-May to late June, while the population of large walnut aphid had a short peak between mid-May and mid-June or mid-July. Field studies showed that both walnut aphids were overwintered as eggs in small seams and cracks of walnut, especially at the bases of fallen leaves. Overwintering eggs were hatched depending on the climate conditions during the third decade of March in Saman orchard and the first decade of April in Farokhshahr orchard. Our findings may provide practical information about the seasonal abundance of walnut aphids, which is useful for agricultural experts and farmers to develop effective integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
Ooencyrtus telenomicida Vassiliev (Hym.: Encyrtidae) is an important and broadly distributed egg parasitoid of sunn pest Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hem.: Scutelleridae) in Iran. Few studies have been carried out on this species. In this research, the life history of O. telenomicida, was studied on E. integriceps eggs under laboratory conditions. All parameters were compared between two levels of parasitism, i.e., superparasitized (SP = two progenies per host egg) and non-superparasitized (NSP = one progeny per host egg). The developmental time of the whole immature stages within the host eggs was 13-17 days. The longevity of adult males and females also ranged between 25-35 and 23-41 days, respectively. The number of eggs was recorded to be 43-191 per female. Moreover, the mean number of daily per capita eggs was 5.3-19.12 per female. The pre-adult survival rate of the two cohorts was 100%, i.e., all wasps from the two cohorts hatched successfully from the host eggs. Superparasitism was observed in all female wasps. Observed sex ratio of the emerged broods was 0.437-0.898 females/total offspring. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) of NSP and SP wasps was estimated 0.224 ± 0.004 and 0.234 ± 0.004 per day, respectively. Net reproductive rate was 76.13 ± 7.55 and 81.6 ± 9.66 females/female/generation for the same cohorts, respectively. The mean generation time was also estimated to be 19.36 ± 0.41 and 18.84 ± 0.40 days for the same treatments, respectively. No significant difference was observed in life table parameters of the two parasitoid cohorts. Therefore, our results showed that superparasitism had no negative effects on the reproductive fitness of O. telenomicida.
The most renowned tea-producing areas in India are located near the foothills of the Himalayan Mountains. The locations above encompass Assam and West Bengal. These areas are characterized by tropical to subtropical climates, with annual precipitation ranging from 1150 to 2800 mm and temperatures ranging from 10 to 35 °C. Furthermore, these conditions facilitate the proliferation of a diverse range of weed species. Weeds interfere with the growth of tea plants at almost all stages, but most interfere during the initial period of plantation. Weeds are the most common pest, reducing tea productivity by 10-50% depending on growth intensity, level of competition, weed type, and the competing ability of clones. Utmost care is required, as if left unattended, the weeds can outgrow the tea plantlets, eventually leading to their death due to tough competition for nutrients and moisture. This review focuses on the weeds in tea plantations in Assam and West Bengal. The study also reveals their harmful and beneficial effects, their invasiveness, and their management.
Phytopathogens isolated from durum wheat grains collected across twenty-eight locations in northeastern Algeria revealed, for the first time, the presence of Cladosporium cladosporioides isolates in durum wheat seeds in Algeria. These isolates were identified through macroscopic and microscopic examinations, followed by molecular identification confirmation. Under controlled conditions, pathogenicity assessments were conducted on three durum wheat varieties, focusing on the effects on germination rate, coleoptile length, root length, and the basal parts of the wheat seedlings. The findings demonstrated that C. cladosporioides isolates induced a significant reduction in the germination inhibition rate to 100% and decreased root and shoot length by 35.44% and 45.41%, respectively. Moreover, they diminished root and shoot fresh weight by 85.56% and 47.18%, respectively.
Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is a major pest in Iran, causing significant agricultural losses. Biological control methods are crucial for reducing reliance on chemical insecticides and fungicides, minimizing environmental pollution, and mitigating insect resistance. This study evaluated the toxicity of the insecticides flonicamid and thiocyclam, the pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana, the compatibility of the fungicides iprodione and carbendazim, and famoxadone and cymoxanil with B. bassiana, and the efficacy of insecticide-fungus combinations against second-instar onion thrips. A completely randomized design with four replications was conducted under laboratory conditions. Results showed that LC50 values for thiocyclam, flonicamid, and B. bassiana were 4.3 mg L⁻¹, 2.3 mg L⁻¹, and 5.4 × 10⁷ conidia mL⁻¹, respectively. Thrips mortality increased with higher concentrations and longer exposure to insecticides and B. bassiana. Flonicamid did not affect the germination or mycelial growth of B. bassiana, making it a compatible insecticide. However, iprodione + carbendazim and famoxadone + cymoxanil severely inhibited the biological activity of B. bassiana, making them unsuitable for integrated pest management (IPM). The combination of B. bassiana (6 × 10⁷ conidia mL⁻¹) and flonicamid (1.2 mg L⁻¹) was the most effective treatment against onion thrips. This combination could serve as an alternative to chemical insecticides in IPM programs, pending field validation.
Most plant pathology research has focused on single-host–single pathogen interactions. Here, are the consequences of co-infection of bean seeds with two important seed-borne pathogens, Xanthomonas phaseoli pv. phaseoli (Xpp) and Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens (Cff) were investigated in terms of disease severity and bacterial population dynamics. Cff and Xpp isolates were collected from infected bean seeds and were identified by PCR with specific primers. Some physiological, pathogenicity, and antagonistic traits of Cff and Xpp were compared. These pathogens exhibited different characteristics, such as the production of extracellular compounds, including indole acetic acid, biofilm formation, and motility which can potentially affect each other and host plants. The results revealed that simultaneous infection of bean seeds with two pathogens increased the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) by 1.71 and 2.38 times compared to a single infection of those with Xpp and Cff, respectively. Pathogen populations in stems and leaves were different under co-infection and single conditions. The data exhibited that the ascending Xpp population in the leaves developed from bean seeds co-infected by Cff and Xpp resulted in a descending Cff population. Xpp isolate displayed greater motility, colonized the plant earlier than Cff, and accelerated disease onset. More biofilm production, confirmed in both pathogens, under co-infection conditions caused earlier plant death via water movement restriction. Our results substantiated that the higher pathogenicity abilities of Xpp played a more critical role in the disease progression in plants developed from bean seeds co-infected by Cff and Xpp. This study provides evidence for the co-occurrence of Xpp and Cff in nature, highlighting the importance of co-infection in common bacterial blight (CBB) and bacterial wilt (BW) disease dynamics.
In Russia, soybean Glycine max cultivation covers over 3 million hectares, but the low average yield leaves the potential of this crop in Russia still unattainable. Soybean diseases are among the main obstacles to increasing soybean yields. Chemical control remains an important tool for managing bacterial diseases, as most soybean cultivars are susceptible, but the list of recommended pesticides is very short. We screened 17 commercial pesticides with reported antibacterial activity as potential agents to combat bacterial blight and bacterial tan spot/wilt of soybeans. Several methods were used to carry out the assay: in vitro screening and determination of the minimal bactericidal concentrations, analysis of phytotoxicity, and testing biological efficiency on seeds and leaves after artificial inoculation with pathogens. The results presented here show that all tested pesticides possessed a significant antibacterial effect in vitro. Still, some plant protection agents (Kocide 2000, Serebromedin, Kasumin, and Phytoplasmin) had a phytotoxic impact on germinating seeds and on green plants, at least in the early vegetation stage, when applied at the rates recommended by the manufacturers. The results showed that for seed treatment to control bacterial blight Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea, pesticide Thiram (TMTD) was the most effective (39% efficacy compared to control), while for the disease on vegetating plants, variants treated with Physan 20 and Daimondaisen showed the highest efficacy (54.5% and 45.5%, respectively). For bacterial tan spot/wilt, Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens on germinating seeds, the highest efficacy was shown with the Ridomil Gold treatment (66.2% efficiency by AUPDC), and on vegetating plants, with Diamondasen (reduction of disease severity by 64.4%). Our results allow us to recommend these pesticides for controlling two primary bacterial diseases of soybean.
The mealy almond aphid, Hyalopterus amygdali (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is an important pest that causes severe damage to almond in Iran. This research studied the life table and population growth parameters of H. amygdali on five almond cultivars: ‘Mamaei’, ‘Rabie’, ‘Ferragnes’, ‘Shahrood 7’, and ‘Shahrood 21’. The experiment was conducted in an incubator at 25 ± 1 °C, 50 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 14:10 hours (L:D). The data were analyzed using the Two-Sex MSChart program. Based on the results, the longest lifespan of the adult aphid was recorded on ‘Mamaei’ (4.11 days), while the shortest was on ‘Shahrood 21’cultivar (1.89 days). The net reproductive rate (R0) ranged from 6.42 for ‘Mamaei’ to 0.2 nymphs per individual in ‘Shahrood 21’. ‘Mamaei’ cultivar showed the highest values of the intrinsic rate of increase (rm) and the finite rate of increase (λ) (0.245 and 1.278 day−1, respectively), along with the shortest duration of the immature stages (5.79 days). In contrast, ‘Shahrood 21’ showed the lowest values of rm and λ (-0.183 and 0.832 day−1, respectively) and the longest duration of the immature stages (7.72 days). Based on the findings, ‘Mamaei’ and ‘Shahrood 21’ cultivars were considered the most suitable and unsuitable hosts for the development and reproduction of H. amygdali, respectively.
The prevalence of Orobanche crenata on faba bean fields in the Mediterranean region is a serious problem. The chemical inducers, including salicylic acid and its analogues were reported to activate the systemic acquired resistance in plants to subsequent pathogen attacks. The effect of different concentrations of acetylsalicylate (AcSA) as presoaking treatments on O. crenata infected faba bean plants of three varieties was studied in a pot experiment under control conditions. At an early stage, before Orobanche establishment, soaking seeds in AcSA solutions at 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.6 mM varied in their effects on faba bean growth depending on their concentrations and tested varieties. Lower concentrations tended to reduce plant height and fresh and dry weight, but these growth parameters showed remarkable increases in concentration of 1.2 mM. At the budding stage, O. crenata infection significantly reduced plant biomass and pods yield for all tested varieties. Application of AcSA at o.8-1.6 mM showed a significant increase in fresh and dry biomass and pod yield of faba bean plants. AcSA at less than 1 mM resulted in a great enhancement effect on attached Orobanche by increasing the number and weights of attached tubercles and spikes. The highest AcSA concentration (1.6 mM) completely inhibited the growth and development Orobanche grown on all tested varieties and produced increases in host biomass and pod yield. Moreover, this treatment produced leaves with the highest levels of chlorophylls, phenolics, and antioxidant activity compared to other treatments. Further studies using relatively high rates of AcSA in field trials are necessary to validate their practical use.
Abstract: Allelopathic potential of three plant species, namely, Zea mays, Senna spectabilis, and Muntingia calabura to control weeds was investigated via bioassays and field studies. The specific objectives were to identify the most phytotoxic plant extract, its effective concentration, the phytochemical extraction method, the allelochemical release mode, and the field efficacy in controlling weeds. Plant extracts were prepared with dry powders of leaves/husks in four concentrations (4, 6, 8, and 10% w/v) using hot and cold-distilled water. The modes of releasing allelochemicals (decomposition, volatilization, and leaching) were identified using pot bioassay, dish-pack, and sandwich methods, respectively. Lettuce Lactuca sativa was used as an indicator in bioassays. Meanwhile, the three most allelopathic extracts/materials were tested in the field by spraying and mulching. Results revealed no significant difference among hot and cold-water extractions (P > 0.05). The 10% concentration showed the highest phytotoxicity. M. calabura and S. spectabilis showed the highest phytotoxicity, evidenced by the lowest germination (22-23%), followed by Z. mays (44%). Leaching was prominent in S. spectabilis, as evidenced by the lowest germination (61%) and the highest inhibitory effects on radical (77%) and hypocotyl (71%) elongation. Volatilization was prominent in S. spectabilis and M. calabura, while decomposition was notable in Z. mays (leaves) and S. spectabilis. Mulching was more effective than spraying (10%, 450 ml m-2), with Z. mays mulching recording the lowest weed emergence, followed by M. calabura (77-84% weed dry weight reduction). In conclusion, S. spectabilis and M. calabura demonstrate high allelopathic potential, followed by Z. mays, highlighting their potential for eco-friendly weed control.
