The cranial cavity exhibits significant anatomical diversity, with consequences for neurological function through the modification of intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion, and neurovascular interactions. Cranial structural diversity has been linked to the pathophysiological processes of neurodevelopmental disorders, cerebrovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disease. The extent to which these anatomical diversities influence neurological health is uncertain. This systematic review was undertaken to combine the existing evidence on cranial cavity variations and their association with neurological outcomes. A comprehensive search of seven databases was conducted to identify cross-sectional studies, case-cohort studies (retrospective and prospective designs), and clinical trials that have investigated cranial cavity morphometry and its neurological importance. Quantitative data on cranial cavity measurements and their relationship with measures of neurological well-being provided by studies were utilized. Potential for bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute systematic review checklist. Synthesis of data was a systematic analysis of variables such as cranial volume, skull base angulation, cortical thickness, ventricular size, and related neurological parameters. The findings indicated significant interindividual and condition-dependent variation in cranial cavity structure. Cranial volume ranged from 950 to 1200 cm 3 , with deviations in the cases of craniosynostosis and Chiari malformation. Skull base angles varied between 124° and 134°, with alterations associated with osteogenesis imperfecta and platybasia. Ventricular enlargement was associated with cognitive impairment, with affected individuals exhibiting a 2.3% greater ventricular occupancy compared with controls ( P < 0.01). Cortical thickness reductions were significant in neuropsychiatric disorders, with thinning observed at rates of up to 50% relative to controls ( P < 0.05). Gray-to-white matter ratio had profound predictive value for neurological outcome, with a threshold range of 1.17–1.27 exhibiting a sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 90%. Preservation of cerebral perfusion pressure above 70 mmHg was associated with favorable survival, though not statistically significant ( P = 0.08). Overall risk of bias was low-to-moderate throughout the included studies. Anatomical variations in the structure of the cranial cavity demonstrated quantifiable correlations with neurological well-being, specifically with respect to cerebrovascular surgery, intracranial pressure, and mental function. They highlighted the need for the incorporation of cranial morphometric assessment into neurological evaluation to enhance diagnostic and prognostic strategies. Longitudinal studies and sophisticated imaging techniques should be the focus of future studies to establish causal relationships between anatomical variation and neurological disease.
Anorectal malformations (ARMs) are congenital anomalies of the distal hindgut with an incidence of approximately 1 in 1500–5000 live births and frequently coexist with multisystem developmental defects. Although surgical advances have improved survival, long-term functional outcomes remain variable, highlighting the importance of understanding the genetic determinants of hindgut development. The HOXA13 gene, a member of the homeobox transcription factor family, plays a central role in caudal embryogenesis, including cloacal partitioning and genitourinary patterning. While pathogenic HOXA13 mutations are known to cause Hand-Foot-Genital Syndrome, emerging studies suggest that subtle variants and regulatory polymorphisms may influence susceptibility to both isolated and syndromic ARMs. This review synthesizes available clinical genetic studies, developmental biology research, and experimental models to evaluate the current evidence linking HOXA13 to anorectal development. The analysis emphasizes biological plausibility while acknowledging the limited size and heterogeneity of existing cohorts. Potential diagnostic implications, avenues for functional research, and future genomic approaches are discussed, with emphasis on the need for larger multicentered studies and mechanistic validation before translation into routine clinical practice. Improved understanding of HOXA13-related developmental pathways may ultimately contribute to refined risk assessment and targeted investigation in pediatric colorectal anomalies.
Anatomical variations are commonly encountered during clinical practice, imaging, and surgical procedures and may significantly influence diagnostic accuracy and treatment outcomes. This review aimed to compile and analyze clinically relevant anatomical variations reported from India over a ten-year period. A structured literature search was conducted for studies published between 2012 and 2022 using electronic databases including PubMed/MEDLINE. Rayyan software was used for screening and selection. Only case reports and cadaveric studies conducted in India were included. Anatomical variations were categorized into head, neck and face (HNF), trunk, upper limb, and lower limb. A total of 172 articles were identified, of which 72 studies met the inclusion criteria. Sixty-nine distinct anatomical variations were documented. Of these, 27 were reported in the HNF region, 24 in the trunk, 16 in the upper limb, and 2 in the lower limb. Variations involving maxillofacial dentition and gastrointestinal organs were most frequently reported. Cadaveric dissection and radiological imaging were the predominant methods of identification. Anatomical variations reported from India span multiple body regions and have important clinical and surgical implications. Systematic documentation of region-specific variations can enhance diagnostic accuracy, surgical safety, and medical education, highlighting the need for an India-specific anatomical variation database.
An exceptionally rare venous anatomical variation was identified in a 101-year-old woman undergoing contrast-enhanced abdominal computed tomography for the evaluation of abdominal pain. Imaging demonstrated duplication of the left renal vein, with an inferior additional renal vein draining into a partially duplicated left ovarian vein (LOV). The ovarian vein subsequently drained into the superior main left renal vein, creating a reno-ovarian-renal venous pathway. The inferior renal vein drained the mid and lower portions of the kidney, serving as a major renal venous outflow pathway. The LOV was markedly dilated, with imaging features of left-sided pelvic venous congestion. While drainage of an accessory renal vein into the ovarian vein has been reported previously, involvement of a large-caliber, functionally significant renal vein has not been described to our knowledge. This configuration establishes a direct anatomical substrate for reno-ovarian reflux and may represent an underrecognized etiologic factor in patients evaluated for pelvic venous congestion. Awareness of such variants is essential for accurate radiologic interpretation and for preventing potential complications during gonadal vein embolization and retroperitoneal surgical or endovascular procedures.
Background: Anatomical variations of the major branches of the abdominal aorta are clinically significant for surgical and interventional planning. Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) enables the accurate evaluation of these vascular patterns. Objective: To determine the prevalence and morphometric characteristics of variations of the celiac trunk, hepatic, and renal arteries using MDCT and to compare the findings with the existing literature. Materials and Methods: This prospective observational study included 248 adult patients undergoing contrast-enhanced computed tomography scans of the abdomen. Variations of the celiac trunk, hepatic arteries, and renal arteries were classified according to the Uflacker and Michels' classifications. Morphometric parameters such as arterial diameters were measured. Statistical analysis was performed using the appropriate statistical software, with P < 0.05 considered significant. Results: Celiac trunk variations were observed in 9.2% of patients, hepatic artery variations in 22.2%, and renal artery variations in 39.1%. The mean celiac trunk diameter was 5.5 +/- 1.2 mm and the mean common hepatic artery diameter was 4.06 +/- 0.9 mm. The most common aortomesenteric angle range was 40 degrees-60 degrees (mean 47.58 degrees +/- 3.024 degrees). A statistically significant association was observed between renal artery variations and celiac/hepatic arterial variations (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Variations of the abdominal aortic branches are common and can be reliably detected using MDCT. Preoperative recognition of these variations is essential to minimize the surgical and interventional complications.
Anatomy is considered one of the keystone subjects of medical science, but it is memorized and learned with difficulty by students. Present-day anatomists strive to make the subject comprehensible to students by adopting various pedagogical techniques. The Department of Anatomy organized the Rangoli competition as part of student activities on World Anatomy Day. Rangoli making, an art-based activity, was chosen as it involved teamwork and active engagement of the students. The students enthusiastically participated in the Rangoli-making event and welcomed the change in their routine learning. The activity encouraged students to explore creativity and promote a constructive learning environment. It has led to the conclusion that such art-based activities promote a learner-centered approach where the learner can complete the learning goals of the anatomy curriculum and the "hidden curriculum".
Background:The cerebellum is one of the structures in the brain that begins first to differentiate but last to mature, since its development is spread over a longer period and shows age-related changes. The cerebellar cortex is divided into the outer molecular layer, middle Purkinje cell layer, and inner granular layer. The external granular layer appears first on the surface of the cerebellum as a dense layer of cells at third embryonic month. The external granular layer is the precursor of the Purkinje layer, and internal granular cell layer. Aims and objective of the study is to observe histogenesis of cerebellum in second trimester of intrauterine life in our population.Material and Method:In the present study, 20 specimens were divided into four groups according to their gestational age, 12-28 weeks.Observation and Result:In Group A (12-16 weeks), an external granular layer was seen, Group B (16-20 weeks) small groove-like folia was observed. In Group C (20-24 weeks), Purkinje cells started appearing. In Group D (24-28 weeks), Purkinje cells were better differentiated.Conclusion:Knowledge of normal histogenesis of brain and its different parts will help us in avoiding Congenital malformation as any delineation from this can help us understand the pathological etiology.
Purpose: This study was conducted to investigate the shape, fusion status, and body width of the hyoid bone and to examine their relationship with age, sex, and with each other. Materials and Methods: A total of 406 neck computed tomography angiography images (203 females and 203 males) from individuals aged 2-95 years were retrospectively analyzed. Results: The most common shape was type 1 (outward), and the least common was type 4 (asymmetrical). Type 2 (inward) was significantly more frequent in males (P = 0.002). Fusion incidence increased with age, and no fusion was observed under the age of 20. The first bilateral fusion was seen in a 22-year-old male, and the first unilateral fusion in a 25-year-old female. Although overall fusion rates did not differ significantly between sexes, fusion was observed at a younger mean age in females than in males (52.81 vs. 57.71 years). The mean hyoid body width was 2.25 +/- 0.38 cm, greater in males (P < 0.001), and showed a positive correlation with age in both sexes (P < 0.001). Fusion status did not affect the hyoid type (P = 0.85). Type 2 had significantly wider body width compared to type 1 (P < 0.001), and body width was significantly narrower in nonfused bones compared to unilaterally and bilaterally fused ones (P < 0.001). Conclusion: The novel classification system introduced here provides a practical tool for the rapid and consistent evaluation of hyoid morphology. Furthermore, this study fills a gap in the literature by demonstrating that fusion status does not affect hyoid bone type, whereas body width shows a partial association with morphology.
Kidneys are supplied by renal arteries which arise from abdominal aorta at the level of L1 - L3. Accessory or aberrant renal arteries are present in 30% of the cases, while normal vasculature is present in 70%. Aberrant renal artery was noticed in the lower pole of the right kidney, passing anterior to the Inferior Vena Cava, hence named precaval aberrant renal artery. Early bifurcation of the renal artery was also noted on the same side. Left renal artery and abdominal aorta were found to be to be tortuous. The length of the aberrant artery was found to be 6.9 cm while the diameter of the artery was 2 mm. The aberrant artery originated 3.1 cm below the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery and 2.6 cm above the bifurcation of the aorta. The abdominal aorta was found to be tortuous and deviated to the right side. This may be attributed to the age of cadaver. The Felix's ladder theory for long explained the embryological reason for the ascent of the kidney and the development of supernumery renal arteries. However, latest research indicates that the variation in renal vasculature may not have any correlation with the mesonephric arteries. The course of aberrant artery passing anterior to the Inferior Vena Cava is unusual. Due to the Physiological and anatomical significance of the organ, study of its vasculature is essential. Recent studies have placed new theories about the embryological origin of aberrant renal arteries which warrants further research.
Background: Craniofacial fat layer thickness (CFLT) shapes facial contour and volume and is therefore critical for accurate forensic facial reconstruction, anthropological analysis, and clinical facial procedures. Population-specific reference data are scarce for Northwest India. To quantify CFLT at 73 craniofacial landmarks and to examine sex- and age-related variation and right-left asymmetry in a Northwest Indian adult cohort. Materials and Methods: This retrospective, crosssectional study analyzed craniofacial computed tomography (CT) scans from 1560 adults (770 males, 790 females) aged 18-80 years, stratified into six age groups. Fat layer thickness was measured perpendicular to the underlying bone at 73 standardized midline and bilateral landmarks using Syngo.via (Siemens). Each landmark was measured in triplicate by two independent observers; mean values were used for statistical analysis. Right-left differences, sex differences, and age trends were assessed using paired and independent t-tests, oneway ANOVA with Tukey post hoc comparisons, and Pearson correlation coefficients. Measurement reliability was evaluated by technical error of measurement (TEM) and relative TEM (rTEM). Analyses were performed in SPSS v23, and significance was set at P < 0.05. Results: Mean CFLT varied markedly by landmark. Midsagittal values ranged from 2.28 mm (Metopian) to 11.79 mm (Stomion). Males showed greater thickness at most midline and periorbital sites, whereas females exhibited relatively higher thickness at several posterior alveolar and molar landmarks. Age effects included progressive thickening of specific midline and perioral sites through middle age (peak similar to 46-55 years), followed by plateauing or modest decline in older decades. Right-left asymmetry was small overall but statistically significant at a subset of molar, occlusal, and periocular points. Correlation analyses showed strong associations between sex and CFLT, moderate associations with age, and high bilateral concordance across paired landmarks. Conclusion: This CT-based dataset constitutes the first comprehensive, age- and sex-stratified reference for CFLT in the Northwest Indian population. The observed sex- and age-dependent patterns and the high midline symmetry support the use of midsagittal landmarks in forensic reconstruction and reinforce the need for sex- and age-specific adjustments when modelling lateral facial regions.
Renal venous anatomy exhibits frequent variations, which may impact surgery, endovascular procedures, and radiological interpretation. We present a 47-year-old male with right renal vein hypoplasia and dual polar veins draining into the inferior vena cava, identified on computed tomographic angiography. Recognition of such rare variants is crucial for surgical planning and prevention of intraoperative complications.
Introduction: Loose bodies (LBs) are fragments of cartilage or bone that remain free-floated in the synovial fluid of knee joints. The various cell types present in LBs are not fully described. Objectives: We examined the histological contents of an LB retrieved from a cadaveric knee joint. Materials and Methods: An LB located in the posterior-medial side of the knee joint of an embalmed male cadaver (age: 75 years) was retrieved during dissection of a lower limb in anatomy demonstration class for undergraduate teaching. Its diameter was determined using a screw gauge: the supero-inferior dimension was 1.5 cm, and the medio-lateral dimension ranged between 0.6 and 0.9 cm. It was fixed and processed for histology, Masson's trichrome staining, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) immunolabeling. Results: The LB was present deep in the popliteal fossa between the femur and tibia, inferior to the lateral condyle. It contained hypertrophic chondrocytes and bone cells. Immunofluorescence labeling with FGF-23 revealed that most cells appeared morphologically preserved; however, functional viability cannot be inferred in embalmed cadaveric tissue. Stages of proliferation and hypertrophy were present in the LB. Osteoclasts were more abundant than the osteocytes. The osteoclasts contained phagocytosed materials from hypertrophied chondrocytes lying above the bone core. Bundled collagen fibers were seen in the cartilage matrix more than in the bone core, having a mineralized matrix and less scattered collagen, evident from DAPI labeling. Conclusion: The present sample was a case of osteochondral growth of the fracture and reflects bone regeneration through the interaction of hypertrophic chondrocytes. Given the descriptive nature of this single cadaveric observation, no therapeutic or clinical management recommendations are drawn.
Introduction:Head-and-Neck Cancers in India have emerged as a dominant public health problem in recent years. Neck dissection with lymphadenectomy is commonly done to prevent the spread of metastasis. Spinal accessory nerve (SAN) is frequently injured during neck dissections, which leads to shoulder syndrome.Objectives:The aim is to study the relationship of SAN with Internal Jugular Vein (IJV), Internal Carotid Artery (ICA), and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) in neck in the patients undergoing lymphadenectomy.Materials and Methods:Surgical neck dissections were performed on 41 patients (38 males and 3 females).Results:SAN was lying deep (posterior/medial) to IJV in 8.1% neck surgery patients, whereas superficial (lateral/anterior) to IJV and ICA in 91.9%. The SAN was seen penetrating the SCM in 87.8% cases, and in 12.2%, it did not penetrate the SCM. In 4 cases, the SAN was sacrificed in neck surgery patients due to extensive lymphadenopathy/matted lymph nodes.Conclusion:The relationship of SAN with IJV and ICA at the level of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle and below it in the Carotid Triangle has been noted. The SAN was lying lateral to the IJV and ICA in the majority of cases. However, in some cases, SAN lying posterior to the IJV was observed. It was also noted that SAN pierced the SCM in the majority of cases. A detailed knowledge of variations, relations and branching pattern of SAN is of great surgical importance for the surgeons performing neck dissections in patients suffering from head-and-neck carcinoma to prevent any injury to SAN.
Background:Studies have shown that students carry on average over 15% of their body weight, causing physiological changes in their growing bodies that could lead to developmental defects. Maharashtra is an educational sector in India with different educational boards with varied curricula, which indeed affects the school bag load. This study investigated the impact of varying school bag weights on students' posture across different educational boards in Western Maharashtra.Methodology:This comparative study assessed the impact of school bag weight on 345 students (5th-8th standard) over 6 months using questionnaires and physical tests (Schober's method, Neer's method, and plumb line's method) from different educational boards. Data on demographics, health, academics, and parental involvement were analyzed using SPSS 25.0 software. Ethics approval and parental consent were obtained, ensuring confidentiality.Results:A study of 345 students (115 per board) showed significant interboard differences. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) students had the highest mean bag weight (5.91 kg), exceeding IB (3.95 kg), and SSC (3.67 kg). CBSE also showed the greatest forward bending (mean = 18.54), indicating increased thoracic curvature, compared with SSC (mean = 16.17) and IB (mean = 14.54). Shoulder pain was reported by 11.4% of CBSE, 20.9% of SSC, and 39.5% of IB students (0.9% coronoid and 2.6% elbow). Plumb line analysis revealed increased thoracic curving in 38.3% CBSE, 45.2% SSC, and 22.6% IB and increased lumbar curving in 38.3% CBSE, 13% SSC, and 20.9% IB. Concentration was affected by bag weight in 13% CBSE, 16.5% SSC, and 17.4% IB. Parent assistance in packing bags was highest in SSC (69.6%), followed by CBSE (53.9%) and IB (53.0%).Conclusion:This study highlighted the marked differences observed across educational boards regarding the impact of school bag weight on student posture. This also emphasizes on the need for targeted interventions such as digital books and locker facilities. Future research should explore long-term effects and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.
Background: The hippocampus, a central medial temporal lobe structure, underpins declarative memory encoding, consolidation, and retrieval - core processes required for learning in anatomy-based programs. Sleep is essential for hippocampal-dependent memory stabilization; however, sleep disruption is common among university students engaged in cognitively demanding training. This study investigated whether sleep quality is associated with declarative memory performance and academic achievement in students enrolled in anatomy-based programs. Materials and Methods: This 2025 cross-sectional study included 872 undergraduate students enrolled in medical and allied health anatomy-based programs at a large Saudi university. Sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Declarative memory performance was evaluated using selected domains of the Wechsler Memory Scale. Academic achievement was measured using grade point average (GPA). Group differences were analyzed using analysis of variance with Tukey's post hoc testing, and associations were examined using Pearson's correlation. Results: Poor sleep quality was reported by 38% of participants. Poorer sleep quality was significantly associated with lower memory performance (r = -0.123, P < 0.001) and lower GPA (r = -0.235, P < 0.001). Memory performance correlated positively with GPA (r = 0.169, P < 0.001). Study duration showed a weak positive correlation with GPA and was not related to sleep quality. Conclusion: Sleep quality was independently associated with declarative memory performance and academic achievement. These findings position sleep as a biologically relevant factor influencing cognitive readiness and learning stability in anatomy-based educational programs.
Congenital anomalies primarily affect the upper urinary tract, with the extra-renal calyx (ERC) being a particularly rare anomaly first described by Eisendrath in 1925. Despite its identification nearly a century ago, fewer than fifty cases have been reported in the literature. This anomaly, which generally involves major calyces, is characterized by the displacement of calyces and the renal pelvis outside the renal parenchyma. Its exact etiology, however, remains unclear. It has been associated with a range of renal anomalies, including ectopic kidney, renal dysplasia, fusion abnormalities, and malrotations. During the dissection of a 59-year-old female cadaver, a unilateral ERC was revealed with vascular variations, including multiple renal arteries, one of which was twisted around the renal vein, accompanied by incomplete malrotation. ERCs are significant for clinical practice and should be considered by surgeons, as understanding such anatomical variations is critical for radiological assessments and surgical interventions. Early detection and monitoring can enhance patient outcomes.
