ABSTRACT Background Pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ) is widely promoted as a mineral‐rich substitute for refined wheat in baked products, yet this nutritional claim is rarely tested against two countervailing effects: loss of fortification‐derived minerals as the regulated wheat premix is displaced, and progressive accumulation of phytic acid, a potent chelator that reduces iron bioaccessibility. Methods Composite cakes were prepared with pearl millet flour at 0%–50% substitution and characterized for functional, proximate, mineral, antinutritional, and sensory properties. Results Intrinsic minerals rose, with iron increasing from 54.8 to 90.8 mg/kg DM, but total ash fell from 2.43% to 1.12% as the fortified premix was displaced, and phytic acid rose faster than iron, driving the phytate:iron molar ratio from 1.31 to 1.58, above the 1.0 inhibitory threshold at every level, including the control. The apparent iron gain is therefore not bioaccessible without phytate reduction. Phytate:calcium ratios stayed below threshold, and sensory acceptability held through 30% substitution. Conclusion The 20% formulation is recommended as the practical optimum.
ABSTRACT Background The potential of plant‐derived proteins as scalable alternatives to animal proteins is hampered by their relatively low digestibility owing to their complex structural architecture. However, targeted processing techniques such as microwave and ultrasonic treatment can improve hydrolysis by modifying protein structure. Objectives To determine the optimal microwave and ultrasound processing conditions for enhancing the digestibility of rice protein. Findings The low digestibility of plant‐derived proteins was confirmed, and rice protein was no exception. Optimal microwave conditions for enhancing protein digestibility were established as medium heat‐intensity (400 W, 50% power) treatment for 2.5 min, significantly improving the in vitro digestibility of rice protein (71.44 ± 0.30–77.77 ± 0.16%) compared to the untreated control (17.44 ± 0.77%). Similarly, ultrasonic treatment at 25 kHz‐40 W for 10 min was identified as optimal ultrasound condition, elevating the in vitro digestibility to 36.97 ± 0.04–36.99 ± 0.10%. The improvement in digestibility was associated with a decrease in β‐sheet content (31.15 ± 1.91%–16.72 ± 1.21%) and an increase in α‐helix composition (17.20 ± 1.45%–38.40 ± 2.42%) of rice protein. DPPH scavenging activity of the resulting hydrolysates increased from 7.63 ± 0.18% in the untreated control to 23.42 ± 0.58% in the medium heat microwaved and 20.75 ± 0.35% in medium intensity ultrasound samples, respectively. ABTS free radical scavenging activity also increased from 9.28 ± 0.40% in the untreated rice protein to 34.50 ± 0.71% in the medium heat microwave sample and 22.53 ± 0.66% for the medium intensity ultrasound sample. In contrast, microwave treatment at high heat intensity (800 W, 100% power) for 3.5 min or ultrasonic bath treatment at 30 kHz–75 W for 15 min were associated with decreased hydrolysis efficiency and tended to dampen the antioxidant capacity of the resulting rice protein hydrolysate. Conclusion Optimal processing conditions can enhance the bioaccessibility of plant proteins. Significance and Novelty These findings emphasize the potential of optimizing basic processing conditions to modulate the structural architecture of cereal proteins to enhance nutritional functionality for application in functional foods.
ABSTRACT Objective To characterize the rheological properties of gluten from different wheat varieties and identify the key variables associated with gluten quality. In addition, this study compared the Chinese cultivar dataset with recent SCI‐indexed studies on wheat gluten structure, rheology, and product quality. Materials and Methods Sixteen wheat varieties cultivated in China were analyzed. Gluten protein characteristics and rheological behavior were evaluated by dynamic rheology, uniaxial extension, molecular weight distribution, and protein secondary structure analysis. Sedimentation value (SV), swelling index of gluten (SIG), and gluten index (GI) were also determined. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the major indicators differentiating gluten quality. Results Significant varietal differences ( p ≤ 0.05) were observed in gluten rheological properties. Strong‐gluten varieties showed higher modulus, strength, and resistance to deformation than weak‐gluten varieties, and these traits were closely associated with SV, SIG, and GI. Strong‐gluten cultivars, such as ZM36 and HH12013, were characterized by marked differences in polymeric protein content. In contrast, weak‐gluten cultivars, including ZM103 and AK58, exhibited a higher proportion of β‐sheets than β‐turns. PCA identified J‐r, J‐max, GI, G, η 0 , G′‐a, and G″‐a as the main variables distinguishing gluten quality. Conclusion Gluten rheological properties vary substantially among wheat varieties and are closely related to protein composition, secondary structure, and conventional quality indices. Rheological parameters, particularly those describing creep, elasticity, and viscosity, provide effective indicators for discriminating gluten quality. Compared with recent studies focused mainly on dough behavior, gluten transformation during processing, or specific product quality, the present work provides a cultivar‐level gluten dataset integrating molecular composition, secondary structure, dynamic rheology, creep‐recovery behavior, and uniaxial extension.
ABSTRACT Background and Objectives Starch‐based rice snacks are widely consumed but generally have low protein content and high glycemic response. This study evaluated the effects of mealworm protein forms on the rheological, nutritional, and flavor properties of a traditional Korean rice snack. Method Rice flour was partially replaced (10%) with defatted mealworm powder (MDF), mealworm protein isolate (MPI), or mealworm protein hydrolysate (MPH). Rheological properties, starch digestibility, antioxidant activity, texture, and flavor characteristics were analyzed using instrumental and sensory‐related techniques. Findings All protein‐substituted samples exhibited reduced pasting viscosity and weakened gel network formation compared to the control. MPH exhibited the highest gelatinization temperatures and the lowest breaking strength (15.22 N) compared with the control (23.47 N), indicating delayed gelatinization and texture softening. MPH significantly decreased rapidly digestible starch level (61.70%) while increasing resistant starch level (15.28%), resulting in the lowest predicted glycemic index (65.04) among all samples. Protein substitution significantly increased total phenolic content (0.55–2.91 mg GAE/g) and antioxidant capacity, with MPH showing the strongest radical‐scavenging activity. E‐nose and E‐tongue analyses demonstrated clear flavor differentiation depending on protein form, with MPH exhibiting intensified taste and Maillard‐derived aroma characteristics, whereas MPI showed enhanced umami intensity. Conclusion MPH showed the greatest potential for improving texture, antioxidant capacity, and glycemic properties of rice snacks. Significance and Novelty This study demonstrates that mealworm protein hydrolysates can function as multifunctional ingredients for developing protein‐enriched rice snacks with improved nutritional and sensory quality.
ABSTRACT Background and Objectives Supported by scientific evidence, this critical review of the patent literature examined methods to reduce wheat allergens and FODMAPs in foods, which may trigger digestive disorders and other health problems. The following topics were covered: proteolytic enzymes, proteolytic bacteria and yeasts, separation, plant genetics, chemical treatments, physical treatments, and binding agents. Findings In total, 62 patented inventions were found. A substantial proportion of patents on wheat allergens reduction, or 33 out of 52, used proteolytic enzymes or separation techniques. Whatever the reduction technique, wheat allergens were not fully eliminated in foods with high wheat content and food properties were impaired. As shown in 10 patented inventions, wheat FODMAPs were removed with proteolytic enzymes, or bread dough fermentation with specific bacteria or yeast starters. Conclusion Rarely cited in science, innovative techniques to reduce wheat allergens and FODMAPs in foods were described in the patent literature. Until the safety of these approaches is confirmed, foods with reduced wheat allergens should be prepared with low‐wheat ingredients. Significance and Novelty This critical review of patents, endorsed by scientific evidence, is a unique approach to reduce wheat allergens and FODMAPs in foods.
ABSTRACT Background and Objectives This study investigated how particle size influenced pasting and gelling behaviors of cereal flours across a wide range of heating temperatures. Hard wheat, soft wheat, oats, barley, and rye were milled into flours using 0.5‐, 1.0‐, or 2.0‐mm screens, and the resulting flours were subjected to heating over 95°C–140°C in a Rapid Visco Analyser. Findings Within each cereal, damaged‐starch contents and water‐holding capacity of the flours generally decreased as the particle size increased. Overall, thermal properties as well as pasting and gelling behaviors of the flours from the same grain were not substantially influenced by the different particle sizes over the tested heating range. Across the five grain types, volume‐weighted mean particle sizes were only negatively correlated with the damaged‐starch contents ( r = −0.536, p < 0.05), whereas no significant correlations were observed for other functional properties. Conclusion Thermal, pasting, and gelling properties of cereal flours were largely independent of particle size across 95°C–140°C heating, which could be related to their coarse particle structure. Significance and Novelty This study revealed the impacts of particle size on the functional attributes of cereal flours at high heating temperatures, offering valuable insights for optimizing flour utilization in diverse products.
ABSTRACT Background and Objectives Driven by increasing consumer demand for nutrient‐dense and more sustainable food options, ancient wheat species present a promising opportunity due to their environmental adaptability and perceived health benefits. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the starch and protein characteristics of ancient wheat species, einkorn, emmer, and spelt, in comparison to common hexaploid wheat, providing insights into their functionality for potential food applications. Findings Thermal behavior revealed that spelt exhibited the highest thermal stability with high transition temperatures. At the same time, emmer required less energy for gelatinization. Amylose% and amylopectin% showed no significant differences among these wheat species. Protein composition analysis indicated significant variations, mainly in gliadin and glutenin fractions, among common wheat and ancient wheat species. The SDS unextractable glutenin levels were significantly lower in ancient wheat compared to common wheat, suggesting that processing modifications may be required to optimize the use of ancient wheat in bakery applications. Conclusions Specific physicochemical properties and functional characteristics of ancient grains need further studies and improvements to make such grains functional in bakery applications. Significance and Novelty The study evaluates the starch and proteins of ancient grains, which demonstrate significant differences compared to hexaploid bread wheat.
Background and Objectives Non-alpha-amylase induced low falling number was identified in 2024 soft white wheat. The objectives of this work were to characterize these low falling number samples and determine the impact on end-product quality. The results were analyzed to determine differences in flour characteristics that might result in a low falling number.Findings Analysis suggests that physiochemical changes in starch properties and low protein content may be contributing to the 2024 low falling numbers. Low falling number Japanese sponge cakes were comparable to the control cakes and produced an acceptable product.Conclusions The falling number method did not correctly determine grain end-product quality for the 2024 samples. Starch pasting properties identified by the Rapid Visco Analyzer provided significant diagnostic information and will be important for future work.Significance and Novelty To our knowledge, this is the first characterization of grain with low falling number in the absence of elevated alpha-amylase activity and the impact on end-product quality.
Background/Objectives Millets are a group of ancient cereal grains increasingly recognized for their nutritional and functional benefits. The purpose of the present study is to understand the effects of roasting, soaking, and microwave pretreatments on the bioactive components and anti-nutritional factors of six minor millet browntop, kodo, barnyard, proso, foxtail, and little millet.Findings Among untreated millets, browntop exhibited the highest levels of total phenolics (TPC; 149.72 +/- 2.68 mg GAE/100 g), total flavonoids (TFC; 198.56 +/- 2.89 mg QE/100 g), and antioxidant activity (75.6% DPPH inhibition). Roasting significantly enhanced total phenolic content (120%-260% increase), total flavonoid content (80%-85% increase), and antioxidant activity (260% increase in % DPPH inhibition) across all millet types, with 10 min of roasting emerging as the most effective duration. Soaking for 12 h increased TPC (27%-36%), TFC (3.5%), and antioxidant activity to 150% but longer durations led to degradation due to leaching and oxidation. Microwave treatments at moderate power levels (500-700 W for 2-4 min) improved bioactive composition with an increase of 120% in TPC, 25% in TFC, and about 77% in antioxidant activity. Soaking was most effective in reducing anti-nutritional factors like tannins (30%-60%) and phytic acid (50%-55%), followed by roasting, which led to 17% reduction in anti-nutritional factors.Conclusion Optimization of different pretreatments has identified roasting as the most effective pretreatment overall, providing a balanced improvement in functional components while moderately reducing anti-nutritional factors.Significance/Novelity These findings provide critical insights into optimizing millet processing techniques for enhanced nutritional and functional value.
Background and Objectives Amaranth seeds are an abundant source of bioactive compounds. Spontaneous fermentation represents a simple and cost-effective strategy to enhance these properties. In this study we investigated the effects of spontaneous fermentation of amaranth flours with different particle sizes on protein bioaccessibility and the production of antioxidant peptides. Findings Fermented flours were prepared by incubating 22.2% w/w flour/water dispersions for 24 h at 37 degrees C, followed by pasteurization (60 degrees C, 30 min). Fermentation promoted lactic acid bacterial growth (9-10 log cfu/g), reduced the pH from approximately 6.2 to 4.2, and induced proteolysis (22%-25%), thereby increasing soluble protein and low-molecular-weight peptides (< 6.5 kDa). After simulated gastrointestinal digestion (COST-INFOGEST), fermented flours reached proteolysis degrees of 48%-49%, with almost complete polypeptide hydrolysis. Fermentation increased the contents of soluble protein and free amino groups after each gastrointestinal digestion step, as well as the antioxidant activity (ORAC and ABTS) both before and after complete digestion. The effects of seed storage time and particle size were minimal. Conclusions Spontaneous fermentation substantially enhances protein bioaccessibility and antioxidant capacity of amaranth flours.Significance and Novelty This study demonstrates, for the first time, that naturally fermented amaranth flour is a promising functional antioxidant ingredient, suitable for incorporation into diverse food formulations.
Background and Objectives Three US soft wheat varieties (Hilliard, Wilson, and Kokosing), one Korean soft wheat variety (Olgeru), and two Korean hard wheat varieties (Keumkang and Sukang) were harvested three times on weekly intervals beginning at approximately 20% grain moisture, and were evaluated for grain, milling, flour quality, and baking performance across three growing seasons from 2022 to 2024.Findings Irrespective of the variety, harvesting around 20% moisture increased test weight and kernel hardness and consequently reduced softness equivalence. Lactic acid retention capacity increased with delayed harvests in Hilliard and Wilson during 2022 and in Keumkang-2023, and Kokosing-2024. Sucrose retention capacity increased in Hilliard-2022, Wilson-2022, and Olgeru-2023 with latter harvests. Gluten performance index (GPI) increased with latter harvests in both Sukang and Keumkang. Kernel and flour protein, flour yield and sugar-snap cookie baking performance of flours were unaffected by earlier harvests.Conclusions Winter wheat can be harvested at moisture levels around 18%-20% without significant changes to baking performances or flour yield across varieties.Significance and Novelty A comprehensive study of early harvest effects on grain, milling, flour quality and baking performance on a wide range of winter wheat varieties is reported here for the first time.
Background and Objectives The standard Farinograph protocol with mixing speed of 63 rpm presents challenges in identifying the dough development time (DDT) of strong wheat flours due to flat mixing curves or double peaks. This study illustrated these issues on strong and very strong flours representing several mixing curve shapes and highlighted how high-speed mixing can improve peak detection.Findings Standard mixing speed at 63 rpm resulted in misidentification of DDT because of an early peak in one of the strong flours, and unreliable and inconsistent peak detection across instruments due to double peaks in another. Mixing at 120 rpm produced curves with well-defined peaks, resulting in consistent DDT ranking across multiple instruments with twin sigma mixing blades that aligned with known gluten strength.Conclusions Mixing at 63 rpm is insufficient for reliable peak detection in flours with strong and very strong gluten properties. Mixing at 120 rpm provides more reliable DDT determination.Significance and Novelty This study provides specific examples of challenges in reliable DDT detection and emphasizes the need to revise current mixing protocols for strong flours. It demonstrates that high-speed mixing can improve peak detection in flours with strong gluten properties.
Background and Aims Simiao rice, a series of "xian" rice varieties in South China, is renowned for its long cultivation history and high quality. Meeting modern living standards requires Simiao rice with excellent cooking and eating quality (ECQ) which is typically assessed through physicochemical evaluation or sensory testing processes that usually time-consuming and not friendly to high-throughput screening. This study aims to identify key indicators for the ECQ of Guangdong Simiao rice, and establishes an objective selection strategy for high-quality Simiao rice breeding. Findings Seventy candidate Simiao rice varieties were analyzed to identify key ECQ indicators and develop an objective screening strategy. The cooked rice taste value (TVc) and the milled rice taste value (TVm) measured by instruments showed strong positive correlations with the sensory taste value (TV) (R & sup2; = 0.7304 and 0.1217, respectively). A preliminary screening threshold of TVc (> 60) and TVm (> 72) for high-throughput initial screening is proposed. Conclusion The screening thresholds of these four indicators were suggested for the subsequent fine screening: AC (13%-16%), GC (68-90 mm), breakdown value (BDV) > 100 RVU, and setback value (SBV) < 10 RVU. The candidate varieties that passed the above two rounds of screening were finally conducted for ultimate sensory evaluation by professional tasters. Significance and Novelty This three-step screening strategy balances efficiency, objectivity, and accuracy, offering a practical technical solution for high-throughput breeding of high-quality Simiao rice.
Background and Objectives Rice bran is a fiber-rich by-product of rice milling with potential as a functional ingredient in instant noodles, but it often impairs texture and appearance. This study examined the effects of rice bran particle size (coarse, medium, fine) and transglutaminase-induced protein crosslinking on the physicochemical and sensory properties of instant noodles at a fixed substitution level.Findings Rice bran incorporation increased total dietary fiber, ash, and antioxidant activity in all formulations. Crude protein content remained comparable among samples. However, amino acid profiles changed, showing reductions in both essential and non-essential amino acids, along with lower protein quality indices. The fine fraction, particularly with transglutaminase, retained tensile force and extensibility close to the wheat control and produced a smoother surface, whereas medium and coarse fractions were darker, speckled, and gritty, which reduced overall acceptability. CATA highlighted "yellowish" and "smooth surface" as desirable attributes, while "speckled surface" and "gritty" were undesirable.Conclusions Particle-size reduction and enzymatic crosslinking are critical for producing rice bran-enriched instant noodles with texture close to the control and strong panel acceptance, although darker color is unavoidable.Significance and Novelty This study connects fiber fortification, amino acid changes, and antioxidant gains with practical particle-size and crosslinking strategies, supported by instrumental measures, CATA profiling, and hedonic data.
Background and Objectives In recent years, plant protein sources such as oat and mung bean have been explored to diversify the food supply. Residual lipids in protein isolates may influence their structural and techno-functional properties and are often overlooked. This work aimed to characterize residual lipids and evaluate their impact on the structural and techno-functional properties of oat and mung bean protein isolates.Findings Initial lipid contents were 34.81% and 3.57% in oat and mung bean protein extracts, respectively. After partial defatting with hexane, residual lipids remained and were enriched in phospholipids, accounting for 11.74% and 87.37% of the residual lipid fraction in oat and mung bean isolates, respectively. Total lipid extraction with chloroform-methanol induced protein aggregation in oat isolates, while mung bean proteins showed limited structural changes. It also impacted techno-functional properties since foaming capacity increased (319.05% vs. 43.52% in oat and 288.74% vs. 32.25% in mung bean), whereas the emulsifying activity index decreased (29.32 vs. 60.39 m2/g for oat and 39.51 vs. 54.14 m2/g for mung bean).Conclusions, Significance, and Novelty These results demonstrate that residual lipids significantly influence protein structure and techno-functional properties, with effects strongly dependent on the protein matrix. Accounting for residual lipids is therefore essential when designing and optimizing plant-based food formulations.
Background and Objective As new opportunities arise for non-genetically modified (non-GM) products in grain markets, segregation becomes crucial but challenging in commodity-friendly infrastructures such as grain elevators. This study developed probabilistic models using Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate three segregation strategies (dedication, spatial, and temporal) at grain elevators. The aim was to identify practices, decisions, and facility configurations that characterize successful non-GM segregation by meeting adventitious presence (AP) tolerance limits: 0.9%, 1.5%, 3%, and 5% in different working scenarios.Findings The probabilistic models revealed that all segregation scenarios met the 5% tolerance limit, but not the 0.9%, 1.5%, and 3% limits. Only 3 out of 18 scenarios could achieve a 0.9% limit when the facility was dedicated to handling non-GM grain. Concurrent handling of GM and non-GM grain in facilities with configurations like one pit-one leg or two pit-one leg could meet 3% and 5% limits through temporal segregation with cleaning between loads. Spatial segregation in facilities with multiple lines was effective for 1.5%, 3%, and 5%, but was ineffective for a 0.9% limit. The 99% feasible tolerance limits in all scenarios ranged between 0.28% and 2.40%.Conclusions The models found dedication and spatial segregation to be the best-suited strategies for non-GM segregation. However, in facilities where spatial segregation was not possible, temporal segregation with cleaning between loads was effective for tolerance levels above 3%.Significance and Novelty The models offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of different segregation strategies and facility configurations for non-GM grain handling. It demonstrates the usefulness of a probabilistic model to simulate different scenarios and choose optimal combinations for business needs and tolerance limits.
Background: Replacing a portion of polished rice with intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) could diversify raw materials for sake, but its effects on composition and fermentation outcomes are not well characterized. The objective of this study was to quantify how adjunct form (whole vs. refined IWG) and level (7.5% or 15% w/w) influence starch and protein supply, free amino acids, sugars, pH, alcohol, organic acids, and volatiles in sake, using two commercial products as benchmarks. Methods: Sake was brewed with 70%-polished Calrose rice, yellow koji (Aspergillus oryzae), lactic-acid-adjusted shubo, and static fermentation at 15 degrees C following sandan-jikomi. Whole IWG was hammer-milled (< 250 mu m); refined IWG was tempered, roller-milled, and sieved (< 250 mu m); flours were added directly (no heat treatment). After fermentation, liquids were separated by cold crashing and pasteurized (65 degrees C, 30 min). Analyses included starch and protein (ingredients), total amino acids in ingredients (g/100 g) and free amino acids in sakes (mg/100 mL; arginine excluded due to co-elution), glucose by HPAEC-PAD, pH, ABV by GC-FID (ASBC Beer-4D), organic acids by HPLC-UV, volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-TOFMS, and PCA. Measurements used >= 2 biological replicates (commercials excepted) with technical duplicates. Results: Refining concentrated endosperm (starch 69.46 +/- 1.36 vs. 44.14 +/- 0.90 g/100 g in whole IWG) and reduced protein (15.25 +/- 0.07 vs. 18.20 +/- 0.00 g/100 g). Ingredient total amino acids followed WIWG > RIWG > rice (16.40, 13.85, 3.37 g/100 g). In finished sakes, free amino acids were highest with whole-grain adjuncts (W15 approximate to 309; W7.5 approximate to 299 mg/100 mL), intermediate for RICE and R7.5 (each approximate to 245), and lowest for R15 (231). Across sakes, aspartate was the highest free amino acids (mean approximate to 95.5 mg/100 mL). Glucose declined over 15 days (e.g., Rice 4.75 -> 3.71 g/100 mL), pH was stable (3.47-3.82), and ABV rose to 11.44-17.81% (Rice highest at moromi). In-house brews had high citric acid (similar to 2528-4472 ppm) versus commercial references (similar to 97-150 ppm); lactic and malic acids were also higher. Volatile profiling (29 compounds) showed lower isoamyl acetate in all IWG sakes (73-429 ppb) and very high ethyl hexanoate in Taka (2577 ppb). PCA (PC1 = 41.0%, PC2 = 34.7%) separated samples by heavier aldehydes/lactones versus light esters/higher alcohols and highlighted medium-chain ester features. Conclusions: Adjunct form and level are key factors in producing IWG sake. Use of whole-grain IWG increased free amino acids, favored medium-chain ester formation, and achieved higher ABV than refined IWG at matched inclusion, whereas higher refinement of IWG reduced the free-amino-acid pool and light esters. These data provide a compositional baseline for optimizing IWG-adjunct sake through ingredient selection and process control; however, under the conditions tested, IWG did not yield a compositional profile clearly advantageous for sake quality.
Background: Grain hardness is a simple yet critical quality trait that governs raw material selection and processing performance in the oat industry. While wheat hardness has been thoroughly characterized with a mature and widely accepted grading system, oat grains are inherently softer than wheat, and the long-standing lack of an independent evaluation system and in-depth mechanistic insights into oat grain hardness has severely hindered the industrial standardization of oat products globally. Aims: This study aimed to screen robust and reliable indicators for oat grain hardness, elucidate the key biochemical determinants underlying oat hardness formation, and establish a standardized quantitative classification system for precise oat hardness grading. Methods: A total of 40 hulled and naked oat varieties with wide-ranging hardness levels, sourced from China and Australia, were selected as experimental materials. A multi-scale systematic approach was adopted, including physical property measurements (texture profile analyzer [TPA], single kernel characterization system [SKCS], grinding hardness index [HI]), solvent retention capacity (SRC) assay, and molecular marker analysis via Vin gene expression quantification. Correlation analysis was performed to validate core hardness indicators, and K-means clustering was used to construct the classification system. Results: SKCS values were validated as robust indicators of oat grain texture, which exhibited significant correlations with TPA parameters, HI measurements, Vin1 gene expression levels, as well as calcium chloride SRC and sodium carbonate SRC values. Notably, a significant positive correlation (r = 0.43) was revealed between CaCl2 SRC and beta-glucan content, indicating that the cross-linking between calcium ions and cell wall macromolecules is a key biochemical determinant of oat grain hardness. By integrating the core validated indicators, a three-dimensional classification system for oat hardness, comprising SKCS values, Vin1 expression levels, and CaCl2 SRC, was established via K-means clustering. This system achieved precise categorization of oats into three grades: hard type (SKCS > 26.21, Vin1 < 0.41, CaCl2 SRC > 110.97%), intermediate type (SKCS 20.41-26.21, Vin1 0.41-1.21, CaCl2 SRC 90.13%-110.97%), and soft type (SKCS < 20.41, Vin1 > 1.21, CaCl2 SRC < 90.13%). Conclusions: This study fills critical gaps in the mechanistic research and standardized grading system for oat grain hardness. The established three-dimensional classification system provides a unified, quantitative framework for international oat quality grading, industrial processing parameter optimization, and molecular marker-assisted breeding of oat varieties with target hardness traits.
Background and Objectives The response of bread systems to ingredient enrichment varies depending on flour composition and matrix structure. This study investigated the impact of white garlic (WG) and black garlic (BG) enrichment (1%-7%) on the technological properties, composition, antioxidants, and sensory characteristics of refined white bread (WB) and whole wheat bread (WWB).Findings Garlic addition reduced bread expansion and increased firmness. In WB, specific volume decreased to 1.67 mL/g with 7% WG (-55.7%) and to 2.18 mL/g with 7% BG (-41.7%). In WWB, 7% WG increased hardness to 4253.9 g. In WB, 7% BG reduced crumb pH to 4.90 (-9.1%) and decreased lightness from 81.93 to 52.23 (-36.4%). Fiber values were higher in WWB (1.55%-1.85%) than in WB (0.11%-0.40%). At 7% WG, sensory and overall acceptability scores declined to 6.9 (-13.7%).Conclusions The properties of bread were significantly affected by flour type, type of garlic used, and amount used. Addition of WG up to 7% increased the content of fiber and antioxidant properties.
Background and Objectives This study investigates the structural modifications of arabinoxylan (AX) through enzymatic hydrolysis and evaluates the potential application of arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (AXOS) as functional ingredients in wheat noodles, contrasting their effects with those of native AX.Findings AXOS exhibits a notably higher proportion of unsubstituted xylose residues (69.1%) than native AX (53.3%), resulting in reduced water-solvent retention capacity (SRC). Supplementation with AXOS (2%-6%) supports stable dough development and gluten network formation, similar to the control group, whereas native AX contributes to unstable viscoelastic properties because of excessive water absorption. Although AXOS supplementation slightly reduces noodle firmness and chewiness relative to the control, it better preserves textural integrity than native AX. Importantly, noodles containing AXOS exhibit superior functional properties, including significantly higher total phenolic content and ABTS radical-scavenging activity in both fresh and cooked forms.Conclusions AXOS is a promising functional ingredient for enhancing the nutritional profile of wheat noodles without inducing the adverse processing effects associated with high-molecular-weight AX, provided that supplementation levels are carefully optimized.Significance and Novelty This study constitutes the first direct scientific comparison of noodle-making performance between AXOS and native AX supplementation groups.
