Diabetic Nephropathy (DN), a major complication of diabetes mellitus, is a leading cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide. This study explores the therapeutic potential of rutoside (rutin) in combating DN using a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rat model. Additionally, we conducted mechanistic evaluations to elucidate the underlying pathways involved in rutin-mediated renoprotection, focusing on network pharmacological analysis and molecular interactions through in silico molecular docking studies, and experimental validation of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. A network pharmacological approach was used with the initial screening of the pharmacokinetic properties of rutin and toxicity evaluation, which indicated low GI absorption with a bioavailability value of 0.17 and no major toxicity associated with the rutin molecule. Target prediction revealed 97 biological targets of rutin and 858 targets of diabetic nephropathy; among these 35 targets were found to be common between rutin and diabetic nephropathy, and these and KEGG enrichment pathways was also carried out to demonstrate the involvement of different genes, and their functions, besides the signalling pathways, and how these to identify key molecular interactions and the involved amino acid residues of the targets. Rutin treatment exhibited a considerable hypoglycaemic index in comparison to the diabetic group. Treatment with rutin also led to a substantial reduction in raised levels of the cytokines involved in inflammation. The antioxidant enzymes were effectively brought to appropriate levels and under control by rutin treatment. Oral administration of rutin our study provided evidence based on bioinformatics, network pharmacology, as well as experimental data about the protective effects of rutin in diabetic nephropathy, and as such, rutin can be a potential drug candidate for future research in this field.
High Fat Diet (HFD)-induced chronic inflammation and oxidative stress induce severe vascular remodeling. P2X7R (purinergic receptor P2X, ligand-gated ion channel, 7), an ion channel is a key regulator of mitochondrial energy metabolism, revealing its importance for cardiovascular diseases; however, its underlying mechanism remains unclear. The study aimed to investigate the mechanism of P2X7R in HFD-induced vascular remodeling. HFD was administered for 24 weeks to induce arterial vascular remodeling in mice. Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells (VSMCs) were treated with PA to trigger inflammation, oxidative stress, and injury, helping us better understand the effects of these conditions on the cells. P2X7R deficiency significantly decreased levels of inflammation-associated cytokines and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in the mice arterial tissue and vascular remodeling in HFD-treated animals. P2X7R targeted NF-kappa B activation and SIRT1 inhibition to facilitate PA-induced vascular impairment, according to in vitro experiments using VSMCs. HFD-induced activation of vascular remodeling was regulated by NF-kappa B and SIRT1, which serve a role in inflammation and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, P2X7R deficiency exerted its protective effects by inhibiting the activation of the NF-kappa B pathway and preventing the downregulation of SIRT1, thereby mitigating inflammation and oxidative stress, respectively. Inflammation and oxidative stress contributed to vascular remodeling in HFD-treated mice, which was prevented using P2X7R deficiency by inhibiting NF-kappa B activation and reversing SIRT1 inhibition.
Osthol, a coumarin derivative, exhibits potential anticancer activity, yet its mechanisms against colon cancer remain unclear and constitute an unexplored area for further investigation to advance its development as a strong anticancer agent. The geometry of osthol was optimized using DFT/B3LYP/6-311G, confirmed by frequency analysis, and key quantum descriptors (FMOs, reactivity indices, dipole, polarizability, and hyperpolarizability) were computed. To assess osthol's physicochemical, drug-likeness, and anti-colon cancer mechanisms using computational and experimental approaches. Osthol's physicochemical and ADME properties were analyzed via SwissADME, drug-likeness using Molsoft, and toxicity with Protox-3.0. Osthol and colon cancer targets were sourced from Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, ChEMBL, SwissTargetPrediction, and GeneCards (GIFTS score >= 55%). Intersecting targets were identified with Venny 2.0, and protein-protein interactions (PPI) were observed using Cytoscape and STRING with CytoHubba for hub gene identification. Gene Ontology (GO) and pathway enrichment were carried out through the STRING database, and the resulting datasets were portrayed as chord plots using SRPlot. Molecular docking of osthol with AKT1, BCL2, and CASP3 was conducted using CB-DOCK2. In vitro, HT-29 colon cancer and CCD-841-CoN normal cells were treated with osthol (0-64 mu M). Cytotoxicity, colony formation, apoptosis (Annexin V-FITC/PI), and protein expression (AKT1, BCL2, CASP3) were assessed via MTT, colony formation, flow cytometry, and western blotting assays. DFT analysis of Osthol revealed a stable optimized geometry, a 4.35 eVHOMO-LUMO gap with charge-transfer character, and favorable global reactivity descriptors. Osthol showed favorable drug-likeness (MW: 244.31, AlogP: 3.74, TPSA: 39.44, oral bioavailability: 38.75%) and no predicted toxicity. Intersection analysis revealed 145 shared targets, forming a PPI network (145 nodes, 562 edges, p<1.0 & times;10-16) with hub genes AKT1, BCL2, and CASP3. GO/KEGG analyses highlighted apoptosis, stress responses, and colorectal cancer pathways. Docking showed strong binding: BCL2 (-10.3 kcal/mol), AKT1 (-8.3 kcal/mol), CASP3 (-6.0 kcal/mol). Osthol reduced HT-29 cell viability and cell colonies, without a significant effect on normal cells, and induced apoptosis (Annexin V/PI) by downregulatingAKT1/BCL2 and upregulating cleaved CASP3 expression. Osthol's drug-like properties and multi-target anti-colon cancer activity support its therapeutic potential.
Benzothiazole-based thiourea and urea derivatives are heterocycles of significant biological and pharmaceutical relevance. Understanding their formation pathways is essential for predicting reactivity and stability. In this work, Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations were employed to investigate the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of two competing condensations: 2-aminobenzothiazole with phenyl isothiocyanate (thiourea derivative) and with phenyl isocyanate (urea derivative). Geometrical, electronic, and energetic parameters were evaluated using the B3LYP functional with the 6-31G(d,p) and 6-311++G(d,p) basis sets in the gas phase, acetonitrile (ACN), and the ionic liquid ethyl pyridinium iodide ([EPy]I). The results indicate that Reaction II (urea formation) is both kinetically and thermodynamically favorable in all environments, whereas Reaction I becomes nearly thermoneutral or slightly endergonic with the larger basis set, especially in [EPy]I. IRC analysis further reveals a concerted addition-proton-transfer mechanism for both pathways, providing direct mechanistic insight. Solvent effects, particularly in acetonitrile, further enhance charge polarization and stabilize the corresponding transition states, strengthening the preference for the urea pathway. These findings provide mechanistic insights into benzothiazole reactivity and may guide future synthetic optimization.
The work aims to develop an advanced hybrid controller for a nonlinear Spherical Tank Level System (STLS). It does so by combining two nonlinear control techniques, the Fractional Order Proportional Integral (FOPI) controller and the Sliding Mode Controller (SMC), which results in a hybrid controller and takes the name of Fractional Order Sliding Mode PI Controller (FO-SMPIC). The proposed FO-SMPIC control system is designed using the worst-case model of the STLS. Simulations of the nonlinear STLS are executed with the proposed control strategy for servo tracking and existing control strategies such as the Proportional Integral (PI) controller and the Fractional Order Proportional Integral (FOPI) controller. Finally, the effectiveness and performance of the FOSMPIC approach are examined through error analysis in terms of ISE and IAE. Experimental outcomes are obtained to confirm the simulation results, and it is proven that the FO-SMPIC approach outperforms all other methods in terms of different time integral performance metrics.
The current research was done to investigate the removal ofAlizarin in the heat-activated sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation process in the batch system. The removal efficiency was evaluated based on the change in operating parameters, including pH (3-10), process temperature (50-80 degrees C), oxidant/pollutant molar ratio (20/1-80/1), and initial pollutant concentration (25-150 mg/L). From the results, the Alizarin oxidation was almost pH independent and the final removal rate was about 90% in all experiment pHs. The maximum decolorization efficiency of about 95% was achieved when the process temperature reached 80 degrees C, along with the activation energy of +134.7 kJ/mol, which indicated the endothermic oxidation process. Moreover, the Alizarin removal was 94% at an initial concentration of 25 mg/L and a maximum oxidant per pollutant molar ratio of 80, and it fell to 24% as the initial concentration rose to 150 mg/L. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculation was employed to identify the degradation mechanism ofAlizarin, which revealed that the molecule has a high electron-accepting ability with significant reactivity. The effect of different oxidants was investigated, and the results show that more COD removal was observed when persulfate was used as an oxidant compared to hydrogen peroxide.
This paper details the design of a cogeneration configuration intended to simultaneously satisfy the tripartite thermal, cooling, and electrical energy requirements of an academic facility in four different climates in the cities of Yazd, Bandar Abbas, Tehran, and Tabriz. Considering the dynamic pattern of the triple loads of the building and ambient temperature, the performance of the micro-gas turbine and other equipment has been studied dynamically, hourly, and off-design. The results have shown that the lowest and highest power loss of the micro-gas turbine occurred in the climates of Tabriz and Bandar Abbas, which are 20.36MWh and 66.26MWh, respectively. The cogeneration system in cities with warm climates, such as Bandar Abbas and Yazd, has less heat loss in the warm seasons, while in the cold seasons of the year, cities with cold climates have the lowest heat losses. The results of the cogeneration system also showed that the system attained the maximum thermal and exergy efficiency in Tabriz, which were 48.44% and 31.23%, respectively. The shortest paybackperiodfor using a cogeneration system in this city is 4.48 years. The highest electricity sales and the lowest amount of electricity purchased from the grid were also related to the same climate, which were 615.2MWh and 2.027MWh, respectively. The cogeneration system had its lowest electricity sales in the city of BandarAbbas, which was 577.7MWh. The highest amount of electricity purchased was 15.78MWh, which was related to the same city.
This study evaluates the influence of solar balcony dimensions on the energy consumption and generation patterns of a two-story residential building located in Beijing, China. Balconies with varying lengths (2 m and 2.5 m) and widths (2 to 3.5 m) are analyzed to examine their impact on monthly and annual energy performance. Using EnergyPlus simulations incorporating detailed building specifications, HVAC operation, and monocrystalline silicon solar cells with integrated microinverters, the study reveals that seasonal meteorological factors predominantly dictate energy consumption and solar generation. Energy consumption peaks in winter due to heating demands, while solar energy production follows the solar radiation cycle, peaking in summer. Variations in balcony size demonstrate negligible effects on overall energy consumption, solar power output, and inverter heat losses, with differences often below 0.5%. These findings confirm that solar balcony size is an insignificant factor in building energy dynamics, and seasonal environmental conditions are the primary drivers of energy consumption and production.
In this study, activated nanokaolin was produced from raw kaolin by the acid-thermal method and used as a cheap and abundant natural adsorbent for the removal of ammonium from polluted waters and industrial wastewater and forpreconcentration of ammonium ions for spectrophotometric determination. The main removal mechanism in this method is ion exchange between ammonium ions present in the samples and ions present in the structure of the activated nanokaolin. To investigate the chemical properties of activated nanokaolin, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy were used. In order to optimize the ammonium removal conditions, the parameters such as pH of the analyte solution, contact time, ammonium concentration solution, and adsorbent amount were changed at the same time, and the effect of each parameter on the adsorption efficiency was investigated, while keeping the otherparameters constant. Also, the removal efficiency and adsorption coefficient of ammonium were calculated, and the optimal values for each were obtained by plotting the graphs. The calibration curve was drawn under optimal conditions. The detection limit of the measurement method was 0.006 ppm, and the quantification limit was 0.019 ppm for ammonium. The dynamic linear range was 0.001-90 ppm for ammonium, and the correlation coefficient R2 was 0.995. The relative standard deviation was 10.07%, and the relative recovery of this method for ammonium in real samples was 90.056 to 103.937%.
The Study was carried out to determine the safety profile and nutritional adequacy of fish feeds commercially available in Erbil, Iraq. Local markets provided 20 feed samples, including edible and ornamental fish species from five countries. An elemental analysis of 28 constituents was conducted on the sampled materials using microwave digestion and Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The results showed that the compositional heterogeneity was quite large, with coefficients of variation varying between 12.3% and 201.9%. Lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) were detected in 45% and 70% of the samples, respectively; all concentrations were within internationally accepted safety limits, and no cadmium (Cd) was detected. However, there were also severe nutritional deficiencies found: 60 % of the samples were found to be deficient in copper, and 30 % in zinc, and one sample had toxic levels of selenium (28.8 mg/kg). Multivariate statistical analysis gave major causes of variation to the geological, nutritional, and industrial factors. These findings outline large gaps in quality management and the importance of increased control by regulation to secure sustainability in aquaculture and preserve consumer health.
Hyperthermia, a therapeutic method that elevates tissue temperature to eliminate unhealthy tissue directly or alongside radiotherapy and chemotherapy, is critical for targeting specific tissues while minimizing damage to healthy areas. Accurate modeling of thermal behavior is essential, as tissue thermal and physical properties significantly influence temperature distribution and treatment efficacy. This study develops an inverse solution to estimate transient surface heat flux in a multi-layered muscle-bone-muscle tissue structure, incorporating temperature-dependent thermal properties for enhanced physiological accuracy. The inverse problem is solved using the conjugate gradient method (CGM) with adjoint formulation, employing simulated temperature data to reconstruct heat flux and determine tissue temperature distributions. In the presence of measurement noise, the root mean square error of heat flux estimation remains below 60 W/m2, confirming the method's robustness and accuracy. Analysis of sensor placement and initial guess further validates the approach's reliability. Compared to constant-property models, estimating heat flux with temperature-dependent properties is more challenging, yet the proposed method demonstrates stability and effectiveness for biomedical heat transfer applications.
This study assesses the thermal performance of various MicroChannel Heat Sink (MCHS) designs integrated with a Water-based Ternary Hybrid NanoFuid (W-THNF) for efficient cooling of solar cells and battery packs. Five MCHS configurations with distinct geometric features are analyzed under steady-state laminar flow conditions using finite element-based simulations in COMSOL Multiphysics software. The impact of nanofluid composition, flow Reynolds number (Re), and geometry on Heat Transfer Coefficient (HTC), pressure drop (Delta p), and entropy generation is assessed on HTC and Nusselt number (Nu) by estimating the Performance Evaluation Criterion (PEC) value and entropy generation number (N_a). Results demonstrate that W-THNF significantly enhances convective heat transfer and reduces temperature gradients within the MCHS, leading to improved Thermal Uniformity (TU) and lower bottom temperature. Configuration 2 exhibits the highest convective heat transfer coefficient, while configuration 3 shows maximum entropy generation due to increased flow resistance caused by a larger number of fins. Nanoparticle volume fraction (phi) and flow rate synergistically decrease entropy generation, improving thermodynamic performance. The proposed MCHS designs reveal superior thermal management capabilities, making them promising candidates for cooling high-power electronic devices.
In this study, the synergistic impact of rhamnolipid and saponin emulsifiers on the emulsion processing of heavy oil was studied. Emulsions were formulated by 10, 20, and 30% water content using mixed biosurfactants at various HLB values (9.6-10.8) to determine the optimum HLB. The total biosurfactant concentration was adjusted to 1.2 g/L, with the rhamnolipid to saponin ratios adjusted according to HLB calculations. Emulsion droplet sizes were measured microscopically, and stability was assessed using the emulsification index (E24) over a temperature range of 45-120 degrees C. Results showed that the optimum HLB for stable W/O emulsions was 10.4, corresponding to an 82% rhamnolipid and 18% saponin composition. At this HLB, when the water content increased from 10% to 30%, the droplet size ranged between 16 and 70 & micro;m, and emulsions remained stable at temperatures up to 90 degrees C. The combination of rhamnolipid and saponin exhibited a clear synergistic effect, forming a compact interfacial film and enhancing emulsion stability compared with individual biosurfactants. These findings suggest that mixed biosurfactants represent promising and sustainable substitutes to synthetic emulsifiers in heavy oil upgrading and other industrial applications.
This study systematically evaluates the role of a mixed mono- and di-rhamnolipid biosurfactant in modulating the flotation behavior of non-copper minerals in a complex Cu-Fe-Mo-silicate ore. Using a full factorial design incorporating six operational variables (particle size: 75-105 mu m; solids: 20-30%; frother: 0-20 g/t; collector: 0-40 g/t; rhamnolipid: 0-20 g/t; pH: 9-12), the metallurgical responses of Fe, Mo, SiO2, and Al2O3 were quantified. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed the model's high significance and predictive accuracy. Rhamnolipid addition induced a distinctly selective response: Fe and Mo recoveries decreased by 12-18% on average, whereas SiO2 and Al2O3 recoveries increased by approximately 35-40%-despite negligible changes in grade. This contrasting behavior is attributed to (i) a physical mechanism, where rhamnolipid markedly enhances bubble population density and froth stability, increasing entrainment of fine silicates; and (ii) a physicochemical mechanism involving hydrogen bonding between rhamnolipid carboxyl/hydroxyl groups and surface oxygen sites on quartz and phyllosilicates, thereby improving their hydrophobicity. In contrast, the depression of Fe-Mo minerals appears to arise from competitive adsorption between rhamnolipid and xanthate collectors, reducing sulfide hydrophobicity. Overall, rhamnolipid demonstrates dual functionality as a depressant for Fe-Mo sulfides and an activator for oxide/silicate gangue, offering strong potential as an environmentally benign modifier. The similar to 40% recovery enhancement of SiO2/Al2O3 highlights its relevance for desilication or reverse-flotation applications, while its biodegradability aligns with green-chemistry directives. The findings offer actionable guidance for integrating biosurfactants into industrial flotation reagent schemes and underscore the need for future surface-analytical validation of the proposed mechanisms.
Natural gas heating for hydrate prevention is energy-intensive and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. This study investigates an Evacuated Tube Solar Collector with an Inserted Baffle (ETSCIB) as a sustainable alternative. A three-dimensional CFD model, validated against experimental data with an average error below 6 percent, was employed to evaluate natural gas heating in both dense and supercritical phases. The dense phase, with 63 percent higher density and specific heat capacity, enhanced heat transfer performance. Compared with the supercritical phase, the dense phase achieved a 21 percent increase in the Nusselt number and a lower temperature difference between the heated wall and the bulk gas. Although entropy generation in the dense phase was 9 percent higher, it was primarily associated with heat transfer and resulted in improved thermal efficiency. Extending the collector length from 0.8 m to 1.2 m reduced the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number by 16.8 percent and 16 percent in the dense phase, and by 18.1 and 17.4 percent in the supercritical phase. These results demonstrate that ETSCIB systems using dense phase flow can achieve higher energy efficiency, thereby reducing dependence on conventional heating and lowering emissions in natural gas processing.
This study systematically investigates correlations between the metallurgical properties of sponge iron (reduced iron and C%) and reducing gas composition in a MIDREX direct reduction furnace. Using direct laboratory measurements from industrial samples, the analysis avoids common uncertainties associated with online sensors (e.g., calibration drift and malfunction) and provides a more reliable empirical basis for assessing how gas composition influences product quality and process optimization. The results show that H2 had a weak positive correlation with reduced iron (R=+0.163), and a moderate positive correlation with C% (R=+0.242). CO showed a moderate negative correlation with reduced iron (R= -0.320) and a minimal influence on C% (R= -0.082). As a diluent, N2 showed mild negative correlations with both reduced iron (R= -0.196) and C% (R= -0.084). CH4 correlatedpositively with reduced iron (R=+0.193), but negatively with C% (R= -0.229), while CO2 showed a positive correlation with reduced iron (R=+0.294) and a negative correlation with C% (R= -0.215). Overall, these laboratory-based findings underline the role of bustle-gas composition in metallurgical quality and offer practical insights for improving energy efficiency, product consistency, and operational control in direct reduction processes.
To increase the shelf life of fresh beef, this study developed active bionanocomposite films composed of Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC), Flaxseed Mucilage (FM), and Oliveria decumbens Vent. Essential Oil (EO). Various concentrations of EO were incorporated into FM-CNC-based films, which were subsequently characterized for their physicochemical properties. These films were then used to package beef fillets, which were kept for 18 days at 4 degrees C. During storage, the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory attributes of the samples were systematically evaluated. Incorporation ofEO significantly altered the films'properties, reducing tensile strength and Water Vapour Permeability (WVP), while enhancing flexibility. The beef samples also exhibited marked differences in pH, Thiobarbituric Acid (TBA) index, Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen (TVB-N), and microbial counts. Although all samples showed increases in these spoilage indicators over time, the control group exhibited the most pronounced deterioration. Notably, films containing 0.75% EO effectively delayed spoilage, extending the beef's shelf life by at least 12 days compared to the control. This extension was connected to the potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the EO-enhanced films. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of FM-CNC-EO bionanocomposite films as a useful strategy for preserving the quality and prolonging the shelf life of the beef. Cellulose NanoCrystals (CNCs) are regarded as efficient nanofillers for biopolymer-based films, owing to their ability to improve crystallinity, mechanical performance, and interfacial interactions. Essential oils, on the other hand, provide bioactive functionality through hydrogen bonding and other molecular interactions. The integration of CNCs with essential oils may therefore yield synergistic effects, simultaneously enhancing structural integrity and functional activity. Such composite films offer promising potential for advanced active food packaging applications.
The Dividing Wall Column (DWC) is a typical example of process intensification, which can reduce total annual cost and energy consumption in the distillation process. This study delves into the hydrodynamics of sieve trays and centrifuge trays within a commercial-scale air-water DWC equipped with a circular downcomer. The experimental liquid loads were 0.5,1, 1.5 and 2 L/min, and gas flow in terms of FS from of 0.2181 until 2.3033 m/s (Kg/m(3))0.5. Various factors, including dry and wet pressure drop, froth height, weeping, and entrainment, were examined and compared for both sieve and centrifuge trays. The study found that the dry pressure drop was marginally lower for sieve trays than for centrifuge trays, whereas the wet pressure drop was higher. Furthermore, the weeping rate and entrainment of centrifuge trays were substantially lower than those of conventional sieve trays, by 21% and 11% respectively. These results suggest that centrifuge trays in a DWC offer increased mass-transfer area, improved separation efficiency, and alleviate common issues faced by traditional trays, such as weeping, entrainment, pressure drop, and maldistribution.
This study investigates the combined impact of roofing materials and solar thermal collector systems on the energy performance of a mid-rise residential/office building located in Beijing, China. The thermal properties of roofing materials, specifically thermal emittance and solar reflectance, critically influence the building's thermal balance and thus its heating and cooling energy demands. Solar thermal collectors contribute actively by harnessing solar energy for domestic hot water and space heating, reducing reliance on conventional energy sources. Using detailed thermophysical properties of building components and a comprehensive HVAC and solar system model, the energy consumption patterns are simulated over the summer months. Results indicate that variations in roof thermal resistance (R-value) moderately reduce heat conduction and lower cooling loads. Solar collectors demonstrate a stable efficiency pattern driven mainly by radiation and load demand, largely unaffected by changes in roof R-values. The integration of high-reflectance roofing with solar collectors provides complementary benefits, reducing overall electrical consumption and peak loads. Collector performance fluctuates with variations in solar input and hot water usage, highlighting opportunities for control strategy optimization, such as setpoint management and pump flow regulation. The present results indicate that increasing roof insulation R-value from 1.8 to 2.4 m2K/W can reduce daily cooling energy use by approximately 15-20%, contributing to seasonal savings of up to 18%. When combined with high solar reflectance roofing materials and optimized solar thermal systems, total cooling load reductions exceed 25%, while peak electric demand decreases substantially. This research highlights the importance of integrating roofs and solar systems in enhancing building energy efficiency, providing guidelines for design and operational improvements in similar climatic zones.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) has emerged as an innovative manufacturing method to fabricate components directly from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) models by depositing material layer over another layer. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is among the most widely adopted processes in AM techniques due to its easy use, economical nature, and compatibility with thermoplastic polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA). However, the mechanical behaviors of the FDM 3D printed parts are significantly influenced by manufacturing process parameters, particularly infill density, build orientation, and infill pattern. The present study primarily focused on how these process parameters influence the compressive performance of PLA printed parts to optimize the structural performance. Samples were fabricated with infill densities of 40%, 60%, and 80%, combined with three infill geometries-rectilinear, concentric, and honeycomb-and tested under axial and transverse build orientations. The results reveal that compressive strength generally increases with higher infill density in the axial orientation, reaching a maximum of approximately 39 MPa at 80% infill across all patterns. In contrast, transverse orientation exhibited a peak compressive strength of about 35 MPa at 60% infill with concentric geometry, after which performance declined. Overall, axial builds consistently outperformed transverse builds, highlighting the importance of orientation and density towards optimizing the mechanical properties of PLA printed FDM components.
