Since at least the autopoietic turn, Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems has been based on a constructivist epistemology. Still, Luhmann appears ambivalent because he uses realist motifs in his oeuvre. This ambivalence has been interpreted as epistemologically contradictory and has led to intensive debates about how to resolve this unsatisfactory tension. Vitor Barros strictly adheres to Luhmann's standpoint to unravel the apparent paradox. By contrast, I try to "solve" the contradiction from a constructivist perspective. To do so, I refer to a comprehensive understanding of constructivism that acknowledges the variety of approaches including Luhmann's "operative constructivism" (or, as Barros calls it, "factual constructivism").
While appreciating Almeida's provocative approach to cancer as an oxymoronic autopoietic-sympoieticrhizomaticsystem-and a life form in its own right-we point out some limitations of her target article. These include the conflation of "cancer" with "tumor" and the assertion that cancer is a "life form," without specifying the intended sense of the term. Furthermore, we pose some questions regarding the oxymoronic nature of her cancer model, the metaphorical extension of her characterization of cancer to diverse realms, such as sociology and education, and the understanding of cancer as a systemic "toll."
In their target article, Cavaletti and Heimann describe adaptations to the micro-phenomenological method to address specific research questions. Here I discuss how such adaptations might fit into the broader evolving neurophenomenological landscape.
Barros departs from the perspective for which Luhmann argued at the end of his life and asks whether this perspective has been consistently applied throughout most of his other publications. I argue for a reverse perspective, which starts from Luhmann's early work and the ways certain early topics,such as reflexivity, defined how he later discussed constructivism.
I discuss how the current formulation of factual constructivism underestimates the theoretical density ofthe concept of operation. I identifythis shortcoming in three aspects of Barros's proposal: methodology, meaning, and world.
This book revitalizes Piagetian theory for the contemporary field. Its authors assert that mathematical knowledge is not a reflection of an external reality but an internal construction bythe agent,evaluated by its viabilitywithin experiential worlds.One ofthe authors'central questions is how cognitive growth is driven by reflective abstraction and the formation of reversible mental operations.These constructs providethefounda-tion for investigating the development of hierarchical schemes, where the agent's internal goals direct the organization of thought through increasingly complex levels of operational coordination. Ultimately, through de-centering (where researchers shift from their own perspectives to those of the students), researchers can build second-order models of student logic. By prioritizing the subjective rationality of learners, this Piagetian framework moves beyond deficit-based perspectives to promote pedagogical equity and respect for diverse mathematical thinking.
I employ the analytical tool of conceptual landscapes to critically analyze Almeida's framework, which integrates autopoiesis, sympoiesis, and the rhizomatic theory to propose a relational view of cancer. Appreciating the author's theoretical synthesis, which moves beyond genetic reductionism, I examine the convergences and tensions between these distinct conceptual landscapes.
I interpret and extend Cavaletti and Heimann's use of micro-phenomenology in time-perception research, arguing that the method not only validates experimental task interpretation but can also generate mechanistic hypotheses about underlying cognitive, emotional, and bodily processes. Drawing on additional empirical examples (assessment of flow states and temporal-order thresholds), it illustrates how the use of micro-phenomenological interviews could clarify dissociations between duration estimation and time-passage perception and help explain otherwise puzzling quantitative findings.
> Context - Cancer research remains largely reductionist, emphasizing genetic mutations as being "selected" by the microenvironment in a neo-Darwinian manner, while neglecting the dynamic and reciprocal interactions between tu-mors and surrounding cells. > Problem. The main problem lies in the limitations of reductionist models, which focus on genetic alterations while overlooking the co-evolution between tumor cells and their microenvironment. This neglect obscures critical aspects of tumor emergence, identity, and resistance. To overcome this, I conceptualize cancer as an autopoietic, relational system shaped by structural coupling and dynamic interactions. > Method. I use a relational and systems-biology approach grounded in autopoiesis and structural coupling. It frames cancer as a self-organizing system shaped by dynamic, co-constructive interactions, also drawing on symbiotic theory. In line with this discussion, I raise the provocation of reimagvining the autopoietic system, cancer and its microenvironment, as an autopoietic rhizome. > Results - Cancer progression and resistance are better understood through Maturana's theory of autopoiesis, where tumor cells and their microenvironment are structurally coupled and co-construct disease dynamics. Complementing this, Haraway's perspective on relational biology highlights the entangled, co-emergent nature of cancer as a system shaped by continuous interactions beyond genetic determinism. > Implications Reconceptualizing cancer as an autopoietic relational system emphasizes its emergence through dynamic interactions within the tumor microen-vironment. This view challenges reductionist models and calls, instead, for an integration of biological complexity and systemic interdependence into cancer research. > Constructivist content. Based on Maturana and Varela's theory of autopoiesis, I apply constructivist thinking to cancer by framing it as a self-producing system emergent from structural coupling and relational processes. Drawing also on Haraway's notion of situated relationality, I challenge reductionist models by showing that tumor identity is not intrinsic but enacted through co-emergent, context-dependent interactions. In doing so, I expand constructivist theory into the biomedical realm as a tool for rethinking complexity, embodiment, and disease.
Cavaletti & Heimann show that a streamlined micro-phenomenological (MP) workflow can help diagnose face-validity problems in time-perception tasks by revealing how participants generate duration-estimation and time-passage perception judgments. While I welcome MP as a pragmatic tool that could lead to improvements in quantification in research, I also caution against improving tasks by engineering convergence on a preferred interpretation, which could potentially narrow what is being measured. Finally, I call for minimal quality controls when MP is used to justify redesigns and for moving beyond single items when needed.
Context center dot Luhmann's social systems theory generates divergent interpretations that oscillate between operative constructivism and contingent realism. This tension becomes most visible in his treatment of the "world" concept, which appears to serve multiple epistemological functions. > Problem center dot The apparent contradiction between constructivist and realist motifs in Luhmann's work creates interpretative difficulties and has led to competing readings that emphasize one side of this tension while neglecting the other. > Method center dot I analyze Luhmann's treatment of the world concept to identify distinct moments of observational reference. Following Luhmann's methodological principle that paradoxes should be "unfolded" rather than resolved, I reveal the complementary nature of these seemingly contradictory positions. > Results center dot The analysis identifies three distinct but complementary moments in Luhmann's theory: unmarked materialism, operative constructivism, and phenomenological realism. These correspond to three world concepts in the theory: meta-systemic world, systemic world, and intra-systemic world. > Implications center dot The concept of "factual constructivism" demonstrates how Luhmann's theory maintains productive tensions between constructivist and realist motifs. This framework enables researchers to move beyond one-sided readings and appreciate the sophisticated interplay between construction and facticity in Luhmann's epistemology. > Constructivist content center dot I clarify Luhmann's unique contribution to constructivist traditions by demonstrating how his factual constructivism avoids both na & iuml;ve realism and radical relativism through its treatment of observational reference and the temporality of system operations.
I suggest that the tensions between realism and constructivism inherent in Luhmann's theory become more evident in the works in which he consummates his constructivist shift. Furthermore, I defend the value of the operative criterion for characterizing his constructivist perspective, given that the operation is the condition of factuality and of the possibility of moving to second-order level observation.
We support the systemic-relational approach to cancer that is advocated in the target article. We suggest that the conceptual background should be developed further, as well as its connection with existing experimental evidence.
Context center dot The need to complement quantitative approaches to studying consciousness with rigorous methods assessing subjective experience has long been pointed out. However, only a few publications have presented ways to genuinely achieve this, fewer still in a time-efficient manner. > Problem center dot We aim to demonstrate how micro-phenomenology can be streamlined to inform and improve experimental designs, by assessing face validity, i.e., whether the experimental design allows for participants' clear understanding and execution of the task given. > Method center dot We do so by presenting a case study in which we used six micro-phenomenological interviews and a streamlined analysis protocol to explore participants' experiences ofan experiment investigating time perception. > Results center dot Based on the raw data and findings of this study, we illustrate how the minimal setup we opted for allows for a critical assessment offacevalidityand we discuss guidelines and limitationsfor using micro-phenomenologyfor piloting,and post-study assessment in general. > Implications center dot We discuss and instruct on the use of experiential data within quantitative setups, and argue for implementing respective approaches within the education of all conducting empirical research involving conscious participants. >Constructivist content center dot We offer a hands-on example ofVarela's neurophenomenological approach that allows reflection on the critical role of experimental designs in the construction of knowledge.
> Abstract center dot While media algorithms and social-media platforms undeniably contribute to the persistence of echo chambers, attempting to "fix" them is impractical, as these platforms are inherently designed to recommend content based on user interests. A more meaningful and sustainable approach is to cultivate critical thinking from an early agethrough childhood education,teach-ing young people how to engage with and navigate polarised thought.
We argue that many adults enter echo chambers with pre-existing beliefs, motivations, and character traits-and with a degree of personal agency-doing so of their own free will. This is an important ethical consideration when seeking to influence people's world-views. We consider echo chambers to be neither inherently positive nor negative; the outcome-whether beneficial, harmful, or neutral to the individual or society at large, depends on how participants engage with them.
Martinisi explores how radical constructivist perspectives can improve our understanding of echo chambers in online media consumption. While I agree with the importance of this endeavor for achieving a deeper understanding of echo chambers and related phenomena, as well as for future research and the practical aspects of media literacy, I would like to advocate for further differentiation and clarification with respect to arguments from within radical constructivism and from enhanced perspectives beyond it.
Druzhinin and Ram & iacute;rez's target article provides an opportunity to consider how viability is judged in domains of varying complexity. In this commentary I consider three aspects of uncertainty: (a) its historical development in the 20th century; (b) uncertainty in different domains; and (c) uncertainty in the context of belief.
I connect Druzhinin and Ram & iacute;rez's analysis of Maturana's approach to uncertainty to ancient Chinese philosophy. I show how Maturana's fundamentally non-dualist framework posits distinction and transformation as mutually constituting principles. It is an enactment of uncertainty, which engenders a philosophy of living.
Context center dot Humberto Maturanawasa renowned biologist, creatorofthe biology of cognition andtheconceptofauto-poiesis, whose ontological-constitutive thinking founded a systemic biology and a bioanthropology.> Problem center dot Thinking about robotics and cognition is often dominated by representationalist schemes.This conversation addresses the challenge of thinking beyond those frames, orienting the design of machines without resorting to semantic notions that obscure processes, and distinguishing the domains of existence of systems. > Method center dot The basis of this text is an unpublished interview conducted in March 2007, later translated and edited. Maturana's "method" is expressed by showing experiential coherences of processes instead of explanatory principles,and by proposing generative mechanisms rather than theories. > Results center dot In the interview, Maturana reflects on the design of robots capable of languaging and emotioning, self-consciously. The conversation articulates a metadesign: operative principles (closed systems, structural plasticity, sensor-effector couplings) and ethical epistemic criteria (objectivity in parentheses, love as the acceptance of the other). > Implications center dot In the preface, I situate this conversation within anthroporobotics, a trans-disciplinary field proposed here, which offers keys for designing artificial systems and for reflecting on our relation with the robotic.
