Abstract Global rice production is continuously threatened by brown spot disease, especially in areas like Nepal where vulnerability is increased by a lack of resources. This review aims to critically assess cultural, physical, biological, botanical, chemical, and integrated disease management (IDM) approaches contextualized for Nepalese agroecological circumstances while looking into the pathogen’s biology, epidemiology, and symptomatic progression. Since more than half of Nepal’s population depends on rice for their main source of nutrition, controlling brown spot disease is essential to the country’s food security. The disease has a direct impact on household income and nutritional security because it not only reduces yields but also impairs grain quality. Moreover, the need for effective and flexible control measures is highlighted by its recurrence in response to shifting climate patterns. Despite the existence of several control measures, socio-economic, technological, and infrastructure constraints prevent their widespread use. In order to promote a context-specific, integrated strategy incorporating resistant cultivars, better input management, and active farmer engagement to increase resilience in Nepal’s rice systems, this article identifies the gaps, local achievements, and global parallels.
Abstract Bovine semen sexing technologies (BSST) have attracted sustained scientific and patenting activity due to their potential to improve reproductive efficiency and herd management in livestock systems. Numerous approaches have been proposed, including methods based on DNA content, sperm surface antigens, motility, size, density, and a range of physicochemical interactions. Despite this extensive activity, only DNA content-based flow cytometric sorting has demonstrated reproducible performance and practical adoption. This review evaluates BSST through the framework of reproductive biology, spermatogenesis, and evolutionary theory, with particular emphasis on the operability of patented methods rather than on reported enrichment outcomes alone. Published research and corresponding patent disclosures are classified into DNA content-based, immunological, motility/size/density-based, and miscellaneous categories. Evidence from proteomics, cytogenetics, sperm morphometry, and evolutionary constraints is examined to assess whether proposed mechanisms can plausibly generate stable, exploitable differences between X- and Y-chromosome-bearing sperm. The analysis shows that, apart from DNA content-based sorting, most BSST approaches rely on assumptions that conflict with established features of spermatogenesis, including chromatin condensation, cytoplasmic sharing among spermatids, and the evolutionary stability of sex ratios. By linking these biological constraints to persistent non-reproducibility, patent attrition, and lack of commercial translation, this review explains why entire classes of BSST methods continue to underperform despite decades of investigation. The findings provide a biologically grounded basis for evaluating innovation claims in reproductive technologies and for guiding future research and patent assessment in this field.
Abstract Horticulture, as a vital subset of agriculture, constitutes a cornerstone of global food security. However, vegetable crop production and productivity are impeded by a multitude of factors, including climate change, pest infestations, constrained land availability, and suboptimal soil fertility. Moreover, horticultural commodities, primarily vegetables and fruits, are predominantly produced within specific seasonal windows, resulting in limited availability during off-seasons. Therefore, precision agriculture, such as protected cultivation technologies, is imperative to augment productivity and ensure year-round availability of produce. Despite their potential, the global understanding of protected cultivation’s role in vegetable production remains limited, primarily due to its status as an emerging technology with relatively low dissemination. This review synthesizes the existing literature to elucidate the role of protected cultivation systems such as polyhouses, polytunnels, shade nets, net houses, and walk-in tunnels, etc., on vegetable crop productivity and farmers’ livelihoods. Research shows that protected technologies can enhance crop yields by three to fivefold, depending upon crop type and system employed, while simultaneously improving produce quality. Furthermore, protected cultivation facilitates year-round production, mitigates abiotic stress, and optimize the utilization of nutrients, water, temperature, CO 2 , and light intensity. Indeed, adopting protected vegetable cultivation technology ensures overall crop productivity and generates better income for farmers, although it is costly and requires skill. Therefore, this review underscores the critical need for strategic dissemination and capacity building to leverage protected cultivation as a sustainable solution for enhancing vegetable production and rural livelihoods.
Abstract Wheat provides a significant amount of the food calories consumed by humans worldwide, thus diseases of wheat are a major food security concern. Due to climate change, wheat diseases have become more prominent and can reduce crop yields dramatically. Diseases of wheat include rusts, Fusarium head blight, and powdery mildew. Methods for detecting diseases of wheat have ranged from manual inspection to support vector machine and random forest algorithms. Recently, deep learning approaches have been employed, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and transformers to automatically extract features that can diagnose wheat diseases with great accuracy, upwards of 95% accuracy in lab conditions. Pros of deep learning approaches include detection that is early stage, non-destructive, and scalable; ability to be used for precision agriculture practices, as well as limiting pesticide usage when detection deems it unnecessary. Cons include high computational cost, lack of real-field generalizability (changes in light conditions, symptom occlusion, presence of similar-looking backgrounds/symptoms), and lack of model explainability (black box), and requirement of many expert-annotated images. Future directions include training models that have explainable AI (XAI) components, lightweight models that can run on edge computing devices to take this technology to the farm, and more collaboration with researchers, growers, institutions, and open data repositories.
Abstract Insect-associated microorganisms profoundly influence host nutrition, development, reproduction, ecological adaptation, and responses to management interventions. However, the microbial partners associated with insects are not functionally or spatially uniform, and the terms endosymbionts , gut microbiota , and symbiotic microorganisms should not be treated as interchangeable. In this review, we distinguish obligate intracellular endosymbionts, facultative endosymbionts, and transient or environmentally acquired gut microbiota, and examine how these different microbial associates contribute to insect pest success and vulnerability. Across insect taxa, microbial partners are involved in nutrient provisioning, detoxification of plant allelochemicals and insecticides, immune modulation, reproductive manipulation, and host plant use. These functions have generated growing interest in symbiont-informed pest management strategies, including microbiome disruption, symbiont-targeted suppression, incompatible insect technique, paratransgenesis, and symbiont-mediated RNA interference. At the same time, translational enthusiasm must be balanced by recognition of ecological uncertainty, variable field performance, host–symbiont context dependence, regulatory complexity, and biosafety concerns, particularly for genetically modified symbiont-based systems. Drawing on published case studies, this review highlights both promising outcomes and contradictory findings, emphasizing that symbiont effects are not universally beneficial or predictable from the standpoint of pest control. We argue that future progress depends on greater conceptual clarity, stronger comparative synthesis across studies, and rigorous evaluation of deployment risks under realistic agroecosystem conditions. A more critical and ecologically grounded understanding of insect–microbe associations will be essential if symbiont-based interventions are to become credible components of sustainable insect pest management.
Abstract Synthetic dyes are extensively used in the food and textile industries to enhance product appearance. However, their association with health risks—including carcinogenicity, dermatological reactions, and behavioral disorders in children—has raised significant public and regulatory concerns. This has driven interest in natural dyes derived from plant-based and food waste sources, such as anthocyanins, betalains, and carotenoids. While conventional extraction methods like acid/alkaline treatment and fermentation are still widely used, they often compromise yield and pigment quality. Recent advancements in green extraction technologies—including ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and pulsed electric field extraction (PEFE)—offer improved efficiency and environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, industrial-scale adoption remains challenged by regulatory constraints, scalability limitations, and economic feasibility. This review critically examines the commercial viability of natural dyes derived from food waste, focusing on their integration into the circular bioeconomy, extraction innovations, market trends, regulatory landscape, and future research needs across food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors.
Abstract Urban foodscapes are a transformative approach to food production that integrates horticulture designs within cities. It is a sustainable approach to combat food insecurity and environmental pollution. In urban foodscapes, previously neglected spaces such as rooftops, balconies, and vacant areas within cities are being utilized for food production. Instead of traditional agriculture and a long supply chain, urban foodscapes foster local food sovereignty, reduce urban heat, enhance biodiversity, improve air quality, and social cohesion. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the role of urban foodscapes in addressing food insecurity, environmental degradation, and structural barriers, and to examine their theoretical and practical dimensions. It further seeks to develop a conceptual framework for designing sustainable, process-oriented urban food systems that support food production, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and community development. Different design strategies used in urban foodscaping include polyculture, companion planting, and water and soil conservation techniques that support ecological health and strengthen community engagement and food literacy. Case studies of different cities like Detroit, Singapore, Milan, Cape Town, and Bangkok have highlighted the environmental and socio-economic benefits of urban food systems. These cities were selected based on their representation within existing literature and their diversity in climate, urban form, and governance models, offering a broad understanding of urban foodscapes practices. However, challenges such as zoning restrictions and infrastructure limitations have illustrated the necessity of coordinated planning among urban designers and policy makers. In the future, the integration of new technology, such as IoT sensors and AI-driven optimization, may support policy makers, urban designers, and residents in designing urban foodscapes. Ultimately, urban foodscapes aim for a regenerative approach for sustainable food production by improving environmental and ecological health with socio-economic prosperity.
Abstract Rising urbanization and industrialization have led to the discharge of substantial volumes of wastewater into the environment. Consequently, wastewater treatment has become crucial for reducing environmental pollution and ensuring human health by eliminating harmful contaminants. Physical, chemical, and biological methods are used to treat wastewater, and advanced approaches frequently combine these techniques or employ innovative technologies. This article, covering recently published articles from 2000 to 2024 extracted from the Scopus database and analyzed using the ‘bibliometrix’ tool in R, aims to highlight progress in wastewater treatment techniques involving the combined application of electrocoagulation (EC) and adsorption (AD). We observed an increase in research interest in the application of the EC/AD process to treat various wastewater matrices through data visualization using ‘Microsoft Excel,’ ‘biblioshiny,’ and ‘VOSviewer.’ The research highlights significant improvements in the EC/AD process that ensure sustainability by incorporating renewable energies and green adsorbents, as well as efficiency in pollutant removal, including emerging contaminants such as heavy metals, dyes, and pharmaceutical compounds. The increased emphasis on the EC/AD process represents a significant advance in wastewater treatment, reflecting the critical need to address the complexities of modern pollution.
Abstract Chimeras, organisms with genetically distinct cells, offer opportunities to study genes and cellular mechanisms, and grow human organs in nonhuman animals for transplantation. The persistence and differentiation of donor cells depend on genetic and epigenetic factors during embryogenesis. Donor-host cell pairing, pluripotency, and lineage segregation affect cell integration, with poor results seen in intraspecies chimeras due to limited host tissue incorporation. In interspecies chimeras, evolutionary differences create a xenogeneic barrier. Strategies like gene editing, organogenesis gene overexpression in donor cells, and blocking host gene expression can overcome this barrier, potentially enabling the growth of human organs in nonhuman animals, and addressing organ shortages for transplantation. Stage pairing between the donor and host cells is one factor determining chimera formation. Early segregation of lineages in the inner cell mass (ICM), such as the differentiation of the primitive endoderm and primitive ectoderm can alter cell adhesion properties and capacity for donor cells to contribute to different cell populations of the fetus. When donor cells are in an epithelial state like the epiblast, they have distinct biological properties than those of the ICM. Appropriate development in the in vitro phase is a determinant of efficient chimera formation. The conditions in which the embryo develops must coincide with the conditions provided by the host species. The contribution of donor cells throughout the host fetus is impacted by the competition between donor porcine-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and host stem cells for the same developmental niche. The most suitable approaches for organ generation are bioprinting, organoid technologies, and tissue engineering compared to interspecies chimeras and embryo models. Nevertheless, interspecies chimeras and embryo models hold potential for human organ development, which has been demonstrated in the generation of functional organs between rats and mice. Future attempts to produce human organs in nonhuman animals will likely be done in animals with less evolutionary distance. However, further studies will still be needed to overcome current technical and ethical barriers.
Abstract Advancing research on reducing environmental pollution must be met with scientific solutions and urgent policy decisions. Climate change along with increasing anthropogenic pressures is resulting in natural resource depletion causing biodiversity loss, rise in opportunistic pathogens, greenhouse gas emissions, ocean acidification and food security threats that may all have disastrous consequences for the health of all life on Earth, if not adequately managed and addressed. Microbial bioremediation alone and along with other approaches offers sustainable solutions. An increasing understanding of the roles and potential of microorganisms as environmental engineers must be employed to improve not only the quality of soil, water, and air but also to reduce and transform hazardous environmental pollutants. Microorganisms that efficiently break down different types of pollutants are interesting and noteworthy. Understanding, evaluating, and developing strategies for utilizing microbial capabilities along with other methods in environmental pollution clean-up appears to be a crucial technology. In this review, we highlight the potential microbial solutions for reducing and transforming environmental pollutants. This review aims to garner scientific attention to practically employ microorganisms to reduce environmental pollution and furthering their research for planetary well-being.
Abstract Globally, the rising prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its associated secondary complications has heightened the need for sustainable, food-based bioactive constituents that can regulate blood glucose levels. In this context, mango ( Mangifera indica ), a widely consumed tropical fruit belonging to the Anacardiaceae family, generates a large amount of peel waste during industrial processing, which remains highly underutilised despite its strong nutritional and phytochemical profile. Mango peels are a significant source of therapeutic constituents, including flavonoids (hesperidin, rutin, quercetin, mangiferin, kaempferol), phenolic acids (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid), essential oils, dietary fibre, amino acids and fatty acids. These bioactive constituents can be efficiently extracted using environmentally-friendly extraction methods such as supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE). Emerging scientific evidence highlights the strong hypoglycaemic potential of mango peels and their phytochemicals, acting via several interlinked mechanisms. These include scavenging of free radicals, suppressing inflammatory responses, regulating post-meal glucose spikes and safeguarding pancreatic β-cells from damage. Beyond hypoglycaemic activity, mango peel-derived functional compounds play a vital part in mitigating secondary diabetic complications, including retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, cardiomyopathy and gut dysbiosis, by scavenging free radicals, suppressing inflammatory cytokines, improving renal function and maintaining intestinal microbiome homeostasis. Additionally, the safety aspects and allergic effects associated with mango peels are also discussed. Despite these health-promoting advantages, existing evidence is mainly focused on in vitro and in vivo trials, with limited preclinical and clinical studies. This review highlights the nutritional and phytochemical constituents of peels, demonstrating their anti-diabetic potential and discussing their potential to be incorporated into functional foods and nutraceuticals. Overall, utilising mango peels provides a sustainable, cost-efficient and eco-friendly strategy to manufacture value-added products for diabetic patients.
Abstract Maize, as we know it today, underwent 9000 to 10,000 years of arduous natural selection by indigenous peoples in the Mesoamerican region. The modern maize cob evolved from a grass with an eight-seeded cob measuring only 3 mm. It now has multifilamentary kernels measuring up to 2 cm long and contains around 250 seeds. There is a vast diversity of maize races, and one classification suggests that there are more than 60 races in Mexico alone. In this work, we review the evolutionary and cultural background of maize in Mexico before opening the debate to question the current system of grain production and importation for direct human and animal consumption. Finally, we provide a comprehensive overview of methods for detecting and monitoring transgenic maize in various samples, ranging from grains to processed maize products such as flours, oils, and sweeteners. We also describe the theoretical foundations of these methods to enable effective testing that can be validated by any Mexican authority, in line with international standards, from sample collection to reporting results. DNA-based techniques, such as endpoint or real-time PCR, are used to validate a detection result in moderately specialized laboratories. Conversely, rapid preliminary techniques that are independent of DNA, such as those based on protein antigen-antibody ratios, are used in the field. However, over the past 10 years, the implementation of in situ DNA-based techniques has intensified. These methods are inexpensive, do not require sophisticated instruments, and are just as sensitive and specific as those routinely used in diagnostic laboratories. As corn originated in Mexico, the country needs all possible technology for the detection and monitoring of genetically modified organisms.
Abstract Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a staple crop for millions of people worldwide and a vital source of food security and income in tropical and subtropical regions. However, its utilization is limited by the presence of cyanogenic glycosides (CGs), which release toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and pose risks to human health. Reducing cyanide content while maintaining cassava’s agronomic performance remains a key breeding priority. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the genetic variability underlying cyanide accumulation in cassava and summarize advances in breeding strategies aimed at lowering cyanogenic potential. We highlight findings from QTL mapping, genome-wide association studies, and the development of molecular markers linked to cyanide regulation. Additionally, we examine biotechnological approaches, including transgenic methods and recent applications of CRISPR/Cas-based genome editing, that directly target the CG biosynthetic pathway. Special attention is given to functional genomic studies that have identified candidate genes, regulatory networks, and transporters involved in cyanide biosynthesis, storage, and detoxification. We further discuss the implications of cyanide reduction for plant defense, nutritional quality, and food safety. Finally, we present perspectives on integrating genomic tools, molecular breeding, and genome editing to accelerate the development of cassava varieties with consistently low cyanogenic potential and improved safety for consumption.
Equitable access to agricultural land remains a central challenge for sustainable and inclusive rural development in Africa. Despite the recognized importance of this issue, a comprehensive and systematic synthesis of land conflict types, key governance actors, and prevailing tenure systems is scarcely documented across Africa. This review fills this gap by applying a transparent and reproducible systematic review protocol – including database searching, screening, and thematic coding – which resulted in the selection of 55 studies from Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and African Journals Online. The findings reveal that inheritance (63.64%) is the most prevalent land tenure regime, while borrowing is the least common (23.67%), indicating a shift away from communal arrangements. Land conflicts are predominantly centred on ownership (28.57%) and usage rights (25%), often exacerbated by fraudulent allocations. The review underscores the central, yet often conflicting, roles of state and customary institutions, with 80% of studies highlighting corruption as a major impediment to effective land law enforcement. Women are identified as the most vulnerable actors in land access and security. The study concludes that transparent, inclusive land governance reforms, which harmonize formal and customary systems, are urgently needed to mitigate conflicts and empower marginalized stakeholders.
The purpose of this systematic review article is to understand the impact of regenerative farming on agricultural sustainability, including its environmental, technological, social, and economic implications. With such a significant amount of evidence from 31 research studies conducted in the period from 2014 to 2024, the review tries to answer three primary questions: what positive effects do regenerative farming methods have on the environment, in what way technology could facilitate the practices to be scaled up, and the possibilities that could both explain and be the result of such a drive towards agriculture that is not only sustainable but can also provide food security globally and what challenges exist and possible solutions. The review finds that adoption of regenerative farming practices, as defined globally, improves soil health, increases biodiversity, and expands carbon sequestration, all of which restore the ecosystem and improve the climate. Newer techniques for farming, like soil-monitoring and precision agriculture systems, play an essential role in ensuring that resource application efficiency is maximized, and widespread adoption is achieved. In addition to these threads, possibilities for collaborative strategies and innovation-led approaches persist, but there are problems of policy limitations, farmers’ understanding and adoption, and financial availability. The research highlights the necessity to combine different types of methods: experimental approaches, policy approaches, and qualitative methods, to evaluate the transformative potential of regenerative farming. This review acts as a basis for other research and practical approaches to promote sustainable regenerative farming systems around the world.
Celiac disease is a prevalent immune-mediated enteropathy that leads to significant morbidity due to malabsorption, micronutrient deficiencies, and heightened malignancy risk. The objective of this study is to synthesise current diagnostic practices and emerging approaches, encompassing clinical, serological, histological, and genetic tools for detecting and managing gluten-related disorders. This literature review is based on peer-reviewed publications and clinical guidelines from the past two decades, highlighting foundational practices and novel insights into serological testing, biopsy protocols, and HLA-DQ genotyping. The results demonstrate that immunoglobulin (Ig) A anti-tissue transglutaminase remains the primary screening modality for individuals over 2 years of age, due to its high sensitivity and specificity, while IgG-based assays are essential for those with IgA deficiency or equivocal presentations. Endoscopic duodenal biopsy confirms villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasia, and lymphocytic infiltration, although patchy lesions necessitate multiple sampling sites. Advances in HLA-DQ2/DQ8 testing further refine diagnostic certainty, particularly in atypical or equivocal cases, with strong negative predictive value helping rule out celiac disease. Both non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy frequently exhibit a similar spectrum of symptoms; however, the methods employed to diagnose these conditions diverge considerably. For instance, in the case of wheat allergy, clinicians often rely on procedures such as quantifying IgE concentrations, skin-prick assessments, or analysing other specific immunological markers. Conversely, non-celiac gluten sensitivity is identified using a completely different diagnostic framework. Neurological and dermatological manifestations, such as gluten ataxia or dermatitis herpetiformis, also warrant consideration, underscoring the multifaceted nature of gluten-associated disorders.
Rice is a largely irreplaceable food, nurturing about one-third of the population worldwide. To ensure food and nutrition security, the development of a myriad of rice ideotypes with desirable attributes is crucial, but cellular and molecular complexities, cellular heterogeneities, and tissue specificity often hinder the research potential of breeding and applied interventions. To overcome such obstacles, recently emerged single-cell genomics and transcriptomics open an advanced window for rice researchers by examining a set of molecular footprints at the cellular level, precise stage of growth and development, and certain stress responses, quickly changing our view on the understanding of biological systems by increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of the individual cell. These cutting-edge approaches offer unprecedented opportunities for high-resolution insights into the cellular architecture of rice, enabling precise cell type identification in indica and japonica cultivars, dynamic transcriptional reprogramming under multiple stresses and developmental conditions, monoallelic gene expression, meristem differentiation, and exploration of root microbiome interactions and pest management strategies, among other transformative applications. In this mini review, we present a comprehensive overview of recent advances in single-cell genomics and transcriptomics in rice, with a focus on their functional relevance to three critical areas, namely, developmental processes and responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Such discussions spark fresh insights and drive progress in closing key gaps in rice single-cell biology. The resultant dissected high-resolution omics resources integration with revolutionary genome editing paves the way for next-generation rice ideotypes tailored for resilience, productivity, and sustainability.
Transitioning to a sustainable framework that emphasizes bioenergy is essential to reduce the dependence on fossil fuel resources that continue to dominate the world’s energy sector. With an estimated 182 billion tons global annual production, lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) has emerged as a renewable and abundant alternative that holds promise for the production of biofuels and biomaterials. The direct biorefinery of LCB is hindered owing to the inherent recalcitrance of its interconnected components primary cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Thus, achieving an effective delignification necessitates the application of a specific and powerful pretreatment. This process disrupts the linkages between the components, thereby improving the accessibility of fermentable sugars by increasing surface area, and facilitating lignin extraction or removal. Recently, extensive efforts have been made to develop and improve several pretreatments enabling a potent yet sustainable conversion of LCB. This review highlights recent advances and reported outcomes in the physicochemical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass, emphasizing the optimal operating conditions that enable improved overall efficiency. In particular, deep eutectic solvent (DES)-based systems have emerged as green and versatile media, allowing effective fractionation of lignocellulosic components into cellulose and lignin fractions suitable for subsequent valorization. Owing to their degradability, tunability, and compatibility with diverse feedstocks, DESs represent a promising route toward sustainable biorefinery. Furthermore, the integration of microwave assistance is discussed as a synergistic enhancement that can further improve process performance and economic feasibility, offering a balanced pathway for efficient and sustainable biomass conversion.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the main characteristics of exercise-induced anaphylaxis due to the consumption of wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn and millet. For this purpose, the necessary sources were searched in PubMed, ResearchGate, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar databases, data on the characteristics of allergenic cereals in exercise-induced anaphylaxis due to cereal consumption and the peculiarities of prevention of this disease were synthesised and summarised. It has been studied that anaphylaxis caused by physical activity due to cereal consumption belongs to the first type of allergic reactions. Sensitisation occurs by inhalation and contact. The most common allergen among cereals is wheat. Sensitisation can occur not directly through the consumption of cereals, but as a result of contamination of these cereals with living microorganisms (mites, bacteria). In some cases, sensitization occurs not to the cereal proteins themselves but to allergens from contaminants, mainly storage mites found in improperly stored grains. The reference to bacteria concerns rare situations where microbial contamination alters cereal proteins in ways that increase their immunogenicity. Cofactors are essential factors that aggravate allergic reactions. The most common cofactors are physical activity, medication and alcohol consumption. A number of methods are used to reduce the allergenicity of cereals: purification and isolation of allergenic proteins are performed by physical and chemical methods (ultrafiltration, chromatography, precipitation) and by heat treatment. However, such measures do not guarantee 100% safety, so it is necessary to explain to patients the expediency of exercising in groups or with friends who can provide immediate emergency assistance if necessary. The use of alternative cereals and recipe modification is recommended. Thus, allergies to rice, rye, millet, barley, oats, and corn are much less common than wheat, but all of these allergens can cause anaphylaxis, which can lead to death if not treated immediately.
Dairy cattle systems and their related industry are important to food security, nutrition, and employment worldwide. Over the last decades, there has been an increase in global demand for milk and dairy products, due to both a growing human population and the increasing demand in emerging economies. Concern has been put on the unsustainability of conventional dairy systems, which significantly contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) and nutrient emissions, and show low profitability, high dependence on external inputs and subsidies, and animal welfare concerns. This review aims to show the central challenges and alternatives regarding the sustainability of dairy farming systems, based on a review of studies carried out in recent decades and years. We identified environmental, social, and economic challenges, as well as options for dealing with them. In environmental terms, we especially highlight GHG and nutrient emissions, with options to address the challenges based on diet changes, rumen bacterial modifiers, plant extracts, herd and manure management, genetic selection, strategic fertilization, urease and nitrification inhibitors, and regulations and taxes on emissions. In social aspects, challenges such as animal welfare, low associativity, and early retirement of dairy farmers can be addressed with pasture-based systems, improved barn design, avoiding overstocking, and strengthening of milk producer associations. In the economic field, rising labor costs, market liberalization, low economic margins, competition from plant-based alternatives and reduced genetic diversity can be addressed through options such as automated milking, subsidies to small/medium-scale farms, limiting herd sizes, innovation, organic or locally based dairy products and increased crossbreeding. We present selected examples of frameworks and case studies aimed at evaluating the sustainability of contrasting dairy systems. Organic or alternative systems had generally better values in environmental and social indicators, such as lower GHG and nutrient emissions, improved nutrient balances, and reduced external input dependence, with similar technical efficiency compared to conventional farms. Likewise, small-scale dairy systems in developing countries using minimum external inputs have been rated positively in environmental indicators related to emissions and soil quality, but their economic performance is dependent on access to fair markets. It is concluded that productivity improvements in the modern dairy industry have been associated with strong negative socioenvironmental impacts. To construct a more sustainable dairy sector, intersectoral dialogue will be central, sharing knowledge, expertise, and skills.
