The efficient extraction of high-quality fish oil with desirable sensory characteristics remains challenging owing to the limitations of conventional techniques such as Soxhlet extraction and enzymatic hydrolysis. In this study, we developed an ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvent method (DESM) for extracting bluefin tuna oil and compared its quality and flavor with oils extracted using traditional Soxhlet extraction (SEM) and enzymatic hydrolysis (EH) methods. Through process optimization, the optimal extraction conditions were determined as: ultrasonication temperature of 60 °C, duration of 60 min, power of 200 W, and a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1∶10 (W/W). Analyses using an electronic nose, electronic tongue, and volatile compound profiling indicated that the flavor profile of DESM-extracted fish oil was more diverse than that of SEM-extracted oil. Additionally, DESM-extracted oil contained compounds such as caryophyllene and 2-methyl-1-undecanol, which imparted a light greasy taste and a distinctive aroma. In contrast, undesirable odors, including greasy hexanal, strongly greasy 2-hexenal, and bitter almond-like benzaldehyde, were significantly reduced. However, these results reflect instrumental flavor differences rather than direct sensory preference. These findings suggest that DESM has potential for further development as a green fish oil extraction strategy, although additional validation of solvent residue control, storage stability, and sensory acceptability is still required.
This study investigated the effects of bran-layer removal on the nutritional composition, multi-scale molecular/crystalline structure, micromorphology, texture, thermal gelatinization, and rheological viscoelasticity of quinoa gels. With the elevation of degrees of milling (DOM, 0–35%), total starch content rose significantly from 57.66% to 80.22%, whereas the content of crude protein and crude lipid declined from 15.82% to 3.97% and 5.99% to 1.38%, respectively; meanwhile, amylose/amylopectin ratio grew steadily from 0.11 to 0.18. The water-holding capacity (WHC) peaked at 72.35% under DOM 19%; moderate bran stripping triggered adequate unfolding of native quinoa protein to build a continuous, compact gel three-dimensional network, improving gel elasticity, cohesiveness and resilience synchronously. At the microscale, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) verified that coarse irregular macropores transformed into tiny, evenly distributed network voids with rising DOM. At the molecular scale, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy exhibited a marked reduction in starch short-range ordered structure (quantified by the R₁₀₄₇/₁₀₂₂ peak ratio), corresponding to expanded amorphous starch domains; X-ray diffraction (XRD) further confirmed attenuated long-range starch crystallinity. Dynamic rheological frequency sweeps proved gel viscoelastic moduli (G′, G″) positively correlated with DOM and ambient temperature, and intermediate-milled samples possessed the most stable cross-linked network. Collectively, this work systematically elucidates the hierarchical multi-scale structural evolution law of quinoa starch-protein-fiber composite gels from molecular crystal, microscopic network to macroscopic functional properties, and provides targeted technical parameters for developing IDDSI-compliant soft gel foods for dysphagic populations.
To address the limitations of traditional chitosan (CS)-gelatin (GEL) films, this study developed composite films activated by a high internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPEs) stabilized by whey protein isolate fibrils-gallic acid-Fe3+ complexes (WPIFs-GA-Fe3+). The results indicated that, the water contact angle of pure chitosan/gelatin (CS/GEL) composite film was around 75.0°, which significantly increased to 80.4° to 87.7°, with the HIPPEs addition amounts varying from 1.0% to 2.0% (W/W), suggesting enhanced surface hydrophobicity. Water solubility (WS) decreased from 34% to as low as 24%, and moisture content dropped by 33% (from 36% to 24%) at a Fe3+/GA molar ratio of 0.5% and 2.0% addition level of HIPPEs, demonstrating improved water resistance. The glass transition temperature (Tg) of CS/GEL film was 146 °C, which was further increased, varying from 153 °C to 166.4 °C for the HIPPEs film. The incorporation of the WPIFs-GA-Fe3+ stabilized HIPPEs altered the hydrogen bonding and metal-phenolic coordination within the film matrix, thereby enhancing thermal stability and reducing water solubility. Besides, the water vapor permeability (WVP) and oxygen permeability (OP), and the mechanical properties of HIPPEs film were significantly improved as compared with CS/GEL composite film. This study demonstrates the huge potential of composite films functionalized by WPIFs-GA-Fe3+ stabilized HIPPEs as high-performance food packaging materials with tunable functional properties.
This study investigated the effects of ultra-high pressure (UHP, 100–500 MPa) on the structural and processing properties of oat dough. Amino acid content remained stable at 0–400 MPa but significantly decreased at 500 MPa (P < 0.05). Structural analyses (XRD, FT-IR, microscopy) revealed progressive starch modifications: 100–300 MPa induced surface morphological changes, reduced starch swelling, and improved pasting resistance. At 500 MPa, starch granules lost their ellipsoidal shapes, formed honeycomb-like surfaces, and exhibited disrupted crystallinity (reduced XRD peaks), correlating with increased gelation and water absorption. These structural changes influenced processing performance, particularly at 500 MPa, which significantly increased the hardness and chewiness of oat dough. Pressures of ≥500 MPa induced irreversible and synergistic transformations, including complete loss of starch crystallinity, formation of a honeycomb-like protein-starch gel matrix, and a concurrent increase in water absorption capacity and texture hardening. This work provides theoretical insights for oat food processing.
The expanding interest in sustainable oilseed systems has highlighted hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a source of nutritionally dense and multifunctional food ingredients. This study presents a comprehensive compositional and techno-functional characterisation of Scottish cold-pressed hemp seed oil and its industrial by-products (press cake and filtration-derived fudge) produced at commercial scale for the first time. Fatty acid profiling of the oils showed low saturated fatty acids (8.65%–8.93%), moderate monounsaturated fatty acids (8.55%–9.57%), and high polyunsaturated fatty acids (74.93%–76.92%), with ω-6 and ω-3 contents of 53.8%–55.3% and 19.4%–20.5%, respectively, yielding ω-6-to-ω-3 ratios of 2.67–2.82. Press cake and fudge contained 12.5%–22.5% and 38.3%–43.5% fat, 24.6%–32.7% and 29.0%–30.9% protein, and 4.97%–6.16% and 5.97%–15.14% ash, respectively. Total non-starch polysaccharides reached 19.8%–22.9% in cake and 2.85%–3.53% in fudge. Mineral concentrations were high, particularly in fudge, which contained 735–841 mg/100 g magnesium, 1.82–2.02 g/100 g phosphorus, 1.30–1.41 g/100 g potassium, 23.0–48.9 mg/100 g iron, and up to 11.82 mg/100 g zinc; cake contained 562–634 mg/100 g magnesium, 1.32–1.56 g/100 g phosphorus, and 17.1–24.8 mg/100 g iron. Essential amino acids in cake were present at nutritionally relevant levels, including leucine (2.37–3.08 g/100 g), phenylalanine (1.87–2.48 g/100 g), valine (1.83–2.37 g/100 g), and lysine (1.18–1.46 g/100 g). LC–MS/MS quantification of 175 phytochemicals showed markedly higher total levels in cake (up to 39.31 mg/100 g) than in fudge (up to 13.15 mg/100 g), with bound phenolics predominating; major constituents included siringaresinol, ferulic acid, and canabisin A. Cannabinoid analysis identified CBDA at 137.7–302.9 mg/100 g and CBD at 20.3–75.2 mg/100 g in oils, with lower concentrations in cake (CBDA 22.17–93.77 mg/100 g; CBD 3.58–25.30 mg/100 g) and higher levels in fudge (CBDA 117.4–297.3 mg/100 g; CBD 17.8–55.3 mg/100 g). Press cake demonstrated high oil-holding capacity (14.7–15.0 g/g), rapid wettability (~100%), and moderate bulk density (0.45–0.47 g/cm3). These results provide an integrated compositional and functional dataset defining the nutritional, phytochemical, and techno-functional properties of Scottish hemp oil and its co-products, supporting their applicability as ingredients within grain-, oilseed-, and fibre-based food systems.
The amphiphilic nature of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified starch enables effective emulsion stabilization through its balanced hydrophilic-hydrophobic structure. In this study, five new OSA-starches (OSA-1 to OSA-5) with distinct molecular characteristics were systematically characterized to evaluate their interfacial behaviours and encapsulation performance. Emulsions were subjected to single droplet drying (SDD) to simulate spray drying, and the influence of core-to-wall ratios and drying temperatures on particle formation and functional properties was investigated. Results showed that the core-to-wall ratio significantly affected particle morphology, while drying temperature modulated solubility and encapsulation efficiency. OSA-1 exhibited superior drying performance and encapsulation efficiency at a core-to-wall ratio of 1:3, but showed low powder solubility. A drying temperature of 70 °C was found to reduce core material precipitation and enhance solubility of the dried particles. These findings elucidate the structure–function relationship of OSA-starch emulsions during drying and provide practical guidance for the development of stable microcapsules using OSA-starch as a wall material.
Wheat seedlings are rich in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), phenolic compounds, flavonoids, folate, and chlorophyll. This review covers their targeted enrichment via strategies such as hypoxia stress, red light treatment, and elicitor application, which activate key metabolic pathways. The associated health benefits include sleep improvement, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, cardiovascular protection, and detoxification. To address the industrial bottleneck of component degradation during processing, non-thermal technologies such as high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, and microencapsulation are discussed as stabilization solutions. Applications of wheat seedlings in functional foods, including sleep-aid supplements, fortified baked goods, and beverages, are also presented. Future research directions, such as precision breeding, multi-component synergy, and targeted product development, are outlined. This review focuses on two core issues: the efficient enrichment of bioactive compounds and the preservation of their stability during processing.
Oxidized triacylglycerols (OxTGs) are major oxidation products generated during thermal oxidation of edible oils, but the respective roles of molecular oxygen and water in their formation during frying remain unclear. In this study, trilinolein was heated at 180 °C for 4 h under frying-like conditions, and hydrogen–oxygen isotope tracing using D₂O, H₂18O, and 18O₂ was combined with UHPLC–HRMS/MS, GC–MS, and 1H NMR to investigate OxTG formation and its relationship with oil deterioration. During heating, total polar compounds increased markedly and reached 23.95–31.35 g/100 g oil at 4 h, while total OxTGs accumulated to 12.97–14.61 g/100 g oil. Concomitantly, secondary oxidation products also accumulated continuously, and total glycerol-core aldehydes reached 20.86 mg/g, with 9-oxo being the predominant aldehydic product. Isotopologue analysis showed pronounced 18O enrichment in major OxTGs only in the 18O₂ treatment, whereas incorporation from H₂18O was negligible, indicating that oxygen incorporated into major OxTGs originated predominantly from molecular oxygen rather than water. By contrast, D₂O suppressed the accumulation of OxTGs and aldehydic products, supporting the involvement of water primarily in hydrogen-transfer and exchange processes rather than direct oxygen incorporation. Hydroperoxy OxTGs were more characteristic of early oxidation, whereas hydroxylated OxTGs were more closely associated with prolonged heating and the formation of secondary carbonyl products. These results provide isotope-based evidence for the formation pathways of OxTGs during frying-like heating and support the combined use of OxTGs, total polar compounds, and carbonyl-related markers for evaluating oxidative deterioration in heated oils.
Pigmented wheat, a unique germplasm with diverse grain colors (purple, blue, black, yellow, etc.), has emerged as a valuable resource for functional food development due to its enrichment in bioactive metabolites. However, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding metabolic differences among distinct-colored wheat cultivars and the specific health-benefiting metabolites validated by biochemical and nutritional studies. Addressing these gaps will facilitate biotechnological breeding and, more importantly, promote nutritional food development. This short review summarizes current advances in pigmented wheat metabolism, covering analytical technologies, characteristic metabolites, biosynthetic pathways, and metabolic comparisons among distinct-colored wheat cultivars. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) are among the primary tools for the separation and identification of metabolites when analyzing wheat grain pigmentation. Comparative analysis reveals distinct metabolic profiles: red wheat is rich in procyanidins and phenolic acids; purple/blue wheat contains specific anthocyanin derivatives (cyanidin, peonidin, delphinidin) with spatial distribution variations; yellow wheat is enriched in carotenoids; and black wheat synergistically accumulates anthocyanins and procyanidins. Pigment biosynthesis of major metabolites (e.g., flavonoids, anthocyanins, procyanidins) follows the conserved phenylpropanoid-flavonoid pathway, regulated by key metabolic enzymes (PAL, CHS, DFR, ANS, etc.) and transcription factors (TaMYB10, TaMYC1, etc.), with environmental factors modulating metabolite accumulation. Despite numerous identified secondary metabolites in pigmented wheat grains, only a few have demonstrated health benefits through biochemical, nutritional, or medical studies, providing a foundation for functional food development targeting specific populations. Future studies should prioritize multi-omics-based regulatory network analyses, metabolite database construction, and technological optimization for nutritional quality improvement and functional food development. This review provides a theoretical basis for exploiting the nutritional and commercial potential of pigmented wheat in functional food innovation.
In this study, curcumin and red palm oil (which is rich in carotenoids and tocotrienols) were co-encapsulated in nanoliposomes assembled from egg yolk phospholipids. These nutraceutical-loaded nanoliposomes were then used to fortify dairy yogurts. The yogurts were evaluated for physicochemical properties, bioactive retention, antioxidant activity, oxidative stability, microstructure, microbial safety, and sensory quality during 14 days of refrigerated storage. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed that the nutraceuticals were successfully incorporated into the yogurt matrix. The pH, titratable acidity, viscosity, syneresis, and color analyses indicated that fortification caused some changes in the physicochemical attributes of the yogurts. The fortified yogurts had significantly increased fl-carotene (10.8-14.8 mg/100 g) and curcumin (0.26-0.58 mg/100 g) contents. During refrigerated storage, the degradation of fl-carotene and curcumin followed first-order kinetics (R2 = 0.84-0.99), and yogurt fortified with 3 % nanoliposomes exhibited the lowest degradation rate constants, indicating superior storage stability. Moreover, the antioxidant capacity was also improved, with DPPH inhibition rising to 27.7 %-36.2 % and ABTS inhibition rising to 23.1 % -27.1 %. Fortification reduced syneresis and imparted a desirable yellowish appearance. In addition, the fortified yogurts showed favorable texture and had the highest sensory scores, suggesting an optimal balance of quality and functionality. Total plate counts of all samples remained at least 5.39 log CFU/g, which is within acceptable levels for yogurt. Sensory evaluation indicated a slight decline in flavor and overall acceptability compared to the control, but the values still remained within the acceptable range. Overall, these findings demonstrate that fortification with curcumin/red palm oilloaded nanoliposomes can enhance the bioactive content and antioxidant properties of dairy yogurt while maintaining acceptable quality attributes. Yogurt fortified with 3 % nanoliposomes offered the best balance between functional benefits and product quality and is therefore recommended as the optimal fortification level for practical use.
Cercis glabra is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant. Although its seeds are inedible, they are rich in diverse unsaturated fatty acids and unsaponifiable compounds that may possess various biological activities. In this study, oil was extracted from Cercis glabra seeds via subcritical fluid extraction, and the fatty acid composition along with the unsaponifiable matter content were analyzed. The seed oil was then evaluated for cytotoxicity in HepG2 and HUVEC cells, acute oral toxicity in Kunming (KM) mice, and its in vivo effects on the growth, blood lipid profiles, renal function, and organ indices. The results showed an oil extraction rate of 8.69 %. The seed oil exhibited negligible cytotoxicity (up to 2 mg/mL) and no acute toxicity even at a high dose of 15,000 mg/kg body weight. Low-dose seed oil administration (400 mg/kg) promoted growth in mice, while a high dose (800 mg/kg) reduced blood lipid levels. Moreover, the seed oil did not induce significant adverse effects on renal function or other organs, indicating favorable biosafety and promising potential for future applications.
The argan tree (Argania spinosa (Skeels) L.), widely known for its oil, also generates co-products such as leaves, pulp, and press cake that remain largely underexploited. This study explored the potential of these co-products as sources of natural antioxidants through ultrasound-assisted ethanolic extraction and evaluated their effectiveness in enhancing the oxidative stability of refined sunflower oil (SFO). Oil samples enriched with two extract concentrations (0.01% and 0.02%) were assessed under accelerated storage conditions (60 degrees C, 120 d) and by the Rancimat test at elevated temperatures (110 and 120 degrees C), in comparison with a non-enriched control and vitamin E. Oxidative stability was monitored using conventional quality indices and antioxidant activity assays. The results demonstrated that argan co-product extracts, particularly those derived from leaves and pulp, exhibited strong antioxidant activity and effectively delayed lipid oxidation in SFO. These findings highlight the potential of argan co-products as sustainable sources of natural antioxidants for improving edible oil stability.
Chronic kidney disease management necessitates dietary protein moderation, and rice, a global staple with high glutelin content, may contribute to renal metabolic load. This study investigated the long-term effects of low-glutelin (LG) rice on physiological metabolism and gut microbiota in C57BL/6 J mice fed a control (CON), a normal-glutelin (NG) rice, or a LG diet for eight weeks. The LG diet did not affect growth, organ indices, or kidney morphology but significantly reduced serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (0.46 to 0.34 μmol/L) and uric acid levels (175 to 141 μmol/L). Although short-chain fatty acid profiles were similar across groups, 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that the LG diet specifically reshaped the gut microbiota, marked by the enrichment of taxa previously associated with metabolic improvement, such as Dubosiella. These findings demonstrate that long-term LG rice consumption is safe and confers beneficial metabolic effects, potentially mediated through targeted modulation of the gut microbiota, suggesting its potential role as a functional dietary option for metabolic health.
This study systematically investigated the influence of mashed potato incorporation on the rheological, micro-structural, and quality attributes of wheat dough and bread. A comprehensive analysis was conducted, encompassing dough rheology, texture profile, moisture distribution, and microstructure, alongside evaluations of bread specific volume, color, textural properties, sensory quality, and storage stability. The addition of mashed potato significantly altered dough properties, reducing hardness from 34.41 N to 22.26 N and decreasing viscoelasticity, primarily due to gluten dilution and modified water binding. Consequently, bread specific volume declined from 2.49 mL/g to 1.66 mL/g. However, enhanced Maillard reactions led to improved crust color brightness and overall sensory acceptability. Notably, incorporating 20 % or more mashed potato effectively inhibited starch retrogradation during storage at 4 degrees C. The findings indicate that a 20 % addition level offers an optimal balance between quality improvement and structural integrity, whereas 30 % represents the upper limit beyond which significant weakening of the bread structure occurs.
This study utilized a simulated in vitro dynamic digestion model for infants, combined with lipidomics technology and a Caco-2 cell model, to systematically investigate the effects of triacylglycerol molecular structure and fatty acyl chain length in lipids on lipolysis and cellular uptake. The results indicated that medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCT) exhibited higher lipolysis efficiency during gastrointestinal digestion, with a greater final lipolysis degree and higher free fatty acid release compared to the physical mixture of MCT/LCT. Moreover, MLCT significantly promoted the expression of genes related to lipid uptake and transport (CD36, FABP4, and SLC27A4) in intestinal cells. The composition of the digestion products of MLCT was highly correlated with its initial triacylglycerol structure. While providing medium-chain fatty acids, it can effectively release long-chain fatty acids, which better meets the physiological needs of lipid digestion and absorption in infants. This study provides a scientific basis for the precise application of MLCT as a functional lipid in infant formula.
Acrylamide (ACR) is a potential carcinogen commonly found in foods processed at high-temperature conditions, especially fried and baked products. Traditionally, the formation of ACR has been mainly attributed to the Maillard reaction, a chemical reaction that occurs between amino acids and reducing sugars at high temperatures. However, recent studies have shown that lipid oxidation products, such as acrolein, can also significantly promote the formation of ACR. Reactive compounds produced during lipid oxidation, such as free radicals, aldehydes, and peroxides, can accelerate ACR formation, particularly when using vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Although measures such as adjusting cooking temperatures and times have been implemented to reduce ACR formation, their effectiveness remains limited, especially in certain high oil-content foods. The reason for this may be that the role of lipid oxidation products in forming ACR has not received enough attention to date. Undeniably, potential mechanism is further demanded to investigate the synergistic effect between lipid oxidation products and the Maillard reaction, which could develop new food processing technologies to reduce ACR formation effectively, in order to improve food safety.
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is a valuable source of bioactive cyclic peptides (CPs), including cyclolinopeptides (also known as linusorbs or orbitides). This study presents the first comprehensive characterization of CPs in cold-pressed oils from five Russian flax cultivars-Biryuza, Fliz, RFN, Y-117, and Nilin-and investigates their statistical correlations with the biochemical composition of flaxseeds. Seeds were analyzed for macronutrients (protein: 21.5 %-25.4 %, fat: 43.3 %-51.0 %, carbohydrates: 13.2 %-22.2 %), moisture (6.0 %-7.3 %), ash (3.3 %-3.9 %), and water activity (0.44-0.55). Oils exhibited high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (64.86 %- 71.90 %), with alpha-linolenic acid ranging from 36.70 % to 53.61 %. Tocopherol content varied from 208.0 to 261.0 mu g/g, with gamma-tocopherol as the predominant form. The total polyphenol content ranged from 34.7 mu g/mL to 52.1 mu g/mL, and the DPPH radical scavenging activity ranged from 64.6 % to 73.2 %. CPs were extracted from oil using 70 % aqueous ethanol and identified via HPLC-DAD-MS; all cultivars contained the same 11 CPs, including six non-oxidized (CLA, CLB, CLL, CLM, CLO, CLP) and five methionine-oxidized forms (CLC, CLE, CLD, CLG, CLN). Correlation analysis revealed that oxidized peptides CLC and CLE showed strong positive associations with seed alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3), alpha-tocopherol, protein content, and color index a*. In contrast, non-oxidized peptides CLA, CLO, CLB, and CLP correlated positively with seed copper (14.5-23.2 mu g/g) and iron (56.2-75.9 mu g/g) content and plant height (65-85 cm). Peptides CLL and CLM were closely linked to total polyphenolic content, DPPH activity, and oil oxidative stability (induction period: 4.8-6.5 h at 90 degrees C). These findings demonstrate that individual CPs are differentially associated with specific seed hemical and morphological traits, suggesting distinct biological roles and potential for targeted breeding of flax cultivars with enhanced functional properties.
Triacylglycerol (TAG) components in human milk, infant formulas with different fat sources, and plant oils (palm oil, flaxseed oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, soybean oil, coconut oil, low erucic acid rapeseed oil, and high oleic acid rapeseed oil) were analyzed and compared using ultraperformance supercritical fluid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPSFC-Q-TOF-MS). Distinct TAG profiles were identified by lipidomics, principal component analysis (PCA), and heatmap visualization. Human milk was characterized by a high abundance of medium- and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCTs), saturated-unsaturated-unsaturated (SUU)-type TAGs (sn-2 palmitic acid). In contrast, plant oils lacked MLCTs and SUU-type TAGs, containing mainly TAGs esterified long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid. Breast milk contains about 27% MLCT, about 50% SUU-type triacylglycerols (which contain about 34% UPU-type triacylglycerols), which is significantly different from plant oils, structured fats and infant formulas. These findings provide a clear basis for optimizing the fat blend in infant formula to better mimic the unique TAG profile of human milk, thereby improving energy delivery and nutrient absorption for infants.
Oat milk has gained widespread consumer acceptance for its creamy texture, beta-glucan content, and environmental sustainability. However, its relatively low protein content (typically 2-3 g/serving) presents a nutritional limitation, largely due to poor protein solubility. This study investigated how processing conditions influence protein content and functional stability in oat-based systems by applying two treatments: (1) alpha-amylase enzymatic hydrolysis, and (2) pH-shifting (from pH 7 to 12 and back) with mild heating (50 degrees C for 10 or 30 min). Oat protein solutions were formulated from two sources: oat flour (OF) and oat protein isolate (OPI). Results suggests that alpha-amylase pretreatment effectively reduced starch-driven viscosity in OF, facilitating better sample handling and centrifugation. Following pH-shifting and heat treatment, both OF and OPI solutions showed significantly improved protein solubility, with protein content increased from 2.0 to similar to 6.5 g/serving. These changes were accompanied by reduced precipitation, smaller particle sizes, and more negative zeta potential values, indicating enhanced colloidal stability. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed the presence of low-molecular-weight protein fractions, supporting increased solubilization. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed the formation of smaller, more uniformly dispersed particles in treated samples compared to controls. However, noticeable darkening or browning occurred under high-pH heating, indicating potential challenges in color control. The findings provide useful information for future industrial applications and product innovation in the plant-based beverage sector.
