Abstract This article discusses the methodological challenges in evaluating the theological thought of contemporary Sufi figures, focusing specifically on the critique of a doctoral thesis titled ‘Pemikiran Akidah Shaykh Nāzīm al-Qubrūsī Menurut Ahli Sunnah Wal Jamaah (The Creedal Thought of Shaykh Nāzīm al-Qubrūsī According to Ahli al-Sunnah Wal Jamaah)’. The central problem identified is the tendency of the thesis’s author to conclude that Shaykh Nazim’s thought contradicts the framework of Ahli Sunnah Wal Jamaah, particularly regarding the issues of tajsīm and tashbīh. This study is significant because Shaykh Nazim’s spiritual order has received official recognition from religious authorities in several Malaysian states, yet allegations of theological deviation persist within academic circles. Employing a qualitative approach through critical textual and discourse analysis, this study re-examines the primary sources attributed to the Shaykh to evaluate the methodological rigor of previous research. The findings reveal significant epistemological errors, including a failure to grasp metaphorical language (majāz), textual distortion, and decontextualization. The study demonstrates that the accusations of tajsīm and tashbīh are inaccurate and stem from a literalist reading of complex mystical texts. Ultimately, this research emphasizes the need for a more holistic and equitable analytical framework when assessing theological-sufi discourse to maintain academic neutrality and avoid premature conclusions.
Abstract This article examines the spread of the Ash‘ari School in the Islamic West, critically assessing the prevailing narrative that it began only with the revolution of Ibn Tumart in the 6th century AH/12th century AD. Prior to that moment, Muslims in the region were purported to adhere to the Salaf creed and vehemently oppose speculative theology (‘ilm al-kalam). This study uses the biographical and corpus of Abu Bakr ibn al-‘Arabi (468-543H/1078-1178A), a distinguished Maliki-Ash‘ari scholar in the Murabitun era, as a case study to identify the position of the Ash‘ari school and the challenges it faced. The research is qualitative in nature, applying prosopographical methods and documentary analysis. Data are drawn from biographical dictionaries, historical chronicles, and Ibn al-‘Arabi’s extant works. The findings demonstrate that Ash‘arite had already gained considerable traction among Maliki scholars in the al-Maghrib and al-Andalus long before the rise of Ibn Tumart. This scholarly circle was characterized by expertise in Maliki jurisprudence, Hadith sciences, and rational theology. Moreover, the analysis of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s intellectual career reveals that the most significant challenge confronting the Maliki-Ash‘ari community during the Almoravid era was the ascendancy of literalism in jurisprudence and theology advanced by the Zahirites, Hanbalites, and some Maliki jurists within the Murabitun administration
Abstract In navigating the complexities of the modern era, a profound understanding of religious teachings is increasingly vital to provide moral and existential guidance in human life. A central aspect of Islam is understanding the Qur’an, which serves as a foundational source of spiritual and moral guidance. Sufistic epistemology offers a distinctive framework for interpreting the Qur’an, emphasizing mystical dimensions and inner experiences. This study investigates Sufistic epistemology as reflected in Qur’anic exegesis in the Nusantara context, focusing on K.H. Ahmad Sanusi’s Rawḍat al-Irfān fī Ma‘rifat al-Qur’ān. Employing a qualitative approach, this study examines the characteristics of Sufi epistemology within the Nusantara exegetical tradition through an analysis of Tafsir Rawḍat al-ʿIrfān fī Maʿrifat al-Qurʾān authored by K.H. Ahmad Sanusi of Sukabumi, West Java. The findings reveal that Sanusi’s interpretative framework integrates three interrelated dimensions of Sufi epistemology: ethical (tasawuf akhlāqī), philosophical (tasawuf falsafī), and experiential (tasawuf ʿirfānī) epistemologies. These dimensions are manifested through the integration of rational interpretation (tafsīr bi al-ra’y), spiritual consciousness, ethical transformation, and experiential knowledge of God (maʿrifah). The study further demonstrates that Rawḍat al-ʿIrfān represents a distinctive model of Nusantara Qur’anic exegesis that synthesizes local Islamic intellectual traditions with Sufi epistemological principles. This research contributes to the broader discourse on Qur’anic interpretation by highlighting an alternative epistemological paradigm beyond the dominant legalistic and scientific approaches in contemporary Islamic scholarship.
The concept of light (n & umacr;r) occupies a central position in Islamic intellectual history, yet its epistemic function remains insufficiently examined in a systematic and comparative manner. Although remains limited, and despite the attention given by and Arnzen (2011) to the relationship between these two figures, existing studies do not focus specifically on a systematic comparison of the epistemological and ontological dimensions of light (n & umacr;r) between them. figures into opposing traditions, as reflected in Walbridge (2001). This gap necessitates a more detailed and nuanced comparative study, which serves as the primary objective of this article. The findings of this study reveal that the concept of light (n & umacr;r) in the Islamic intellectual tradition develops along two fundamentally distinct paradigms: an epistemological-theological model in the thought of al-Ghazali and an ontological-illuminationist system in the philosophy of al-Suhrawardi. Although both thinkers concur that light is " "manifest in itself and makes others manifest" ( (z & amacr;hir li dh & amacr;tih wa muzhir li ghayrih) and ultimately derives from the N & umacr;r al-Anw & amacr;r (Light of Lights), their divergence lies in the structural relationship between epistemology and ontology. This study examines the concept of light through a comparative analysis of Mishk & amacr;t al-Anw & amacr;r by al-Ghazali and Hikmat al-Ishr & amacr;q by al-Suhrawardi, with particular focus on their epistemological and ontological dimensions. It demonstrates that al-Ghazali approaches light within an epistemological-theological framework, wherein light operates as a symbolic language for spiritual cognition and unveiling. In contrast, al-Suhrawardi advances light as the primary ontological principle, effectively displacing the Peripatetic notion of wuj & umacr;d, constructing a hierarchical metaphysics grounded in degrees of luminous intensity ( (shiddat al-n & umacr;r), from which both reality and knowledge are derived. The study concludes that the discourse on light in Islamic philosophy undergoes a significant transition from a symbolic-theological paradigm to an ontologicalilluminationist one.
This article examines the doctrinal and hermeneutical debates surrounding three central eschatological figures in Islamic thought: al-Mahdi, the descent of Prophet 'Isa, and al-Dajjal. The main problem addressed is that these motifs are often treated either as isolated beliefs or as contemporary political symbols, while insufficient attention is given to the classical evidentiary standards through which Muslim theologians assessed them. To address this gap, the study analyzes how Sunni and Shi'i traditions construct the doctrinal status of these figures through the Qur'anic indications, Hadith transmission, claims of ijma', and literal or figurative interpretation. Methodologically, the article employs a qualitative historical-comparative approach based on textual analysis of selected tafs & imacr;r works, Hadith commentaries, creedal treatises and contemporary academic studies. The findings show that mainstream Sunni theology generally affirms the descent of 'Isa and the reality of al-Dajjal as major end-times realities, while the doctrinal status of al-Mahdi remains more contested due to differing evaluations of Hadith reports. In Twelver Shi'ism theology, Mahdism is closely linked to Imamate, occultation and authority. The article argues for a methodologically explicit and academically neutral approach to Islamic eschatology
This research reinterprets Safavid-era Mahdism from a functionalist perspective. The aim of this article is to analyze, in addition to the functional dimension of Mahdism in the Safavid era, its dysfunctional and non-functional aspects. This research is very important because it attempts to conduct a sociological analysis using reliable historical data and library-based research, and to reinterpret the socio-political conditions of the Safavid era in light of Mahdism. The approach of this research is interdisciplinary (historical-sociological). The methods used in this article are the historical method and the analytical-theoretical method, which analyze historical data based on sociological theories. The findings indicate that the functions of Mahdism against the Ottomans and Uzbeks, fostering national solidarity, and facilitating the transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. Its dysfunctions, however, include the emergence of false claimants, the construction of an ideological justification for the lord-vassal structure through the notions of representation and connection, and the inability to reabsorb social forces. Its non-function indicates the gradual decline of state governance. The corresponding social forces, identified according to their functional, dysfunctional, and non-functional dimensions, include kings, clerics, writers, historians, false claimants, Gh & amacr;l & imacr; groups, and Sufis.
Abstract This study discusses the critique of Ashʿarite kalām against the denial of God’s existence within two major strands of postmodern thought, philosophical nihilism, as developed by Friedrich Nietzsche, and scientific atheism, grounded in Neo-Darwinism. Both currents reject metaphysics and divine authority, either through the slogan of the “death of God” or through the reduction of existence to a strictly materialist framework. In response, Ashʿarite kalām is presented as a systematic and rational theological discourse that engages critically with such perspectives. The objectives of this study are: (i) to explain the concept of existence according to Ashʿarite kalām and Western philosophy; (ii) to evaluate the forms of argumentation in theological issues between Nietzsche’s thought, scientific atheism, and Ashʿarite theology; and (iii) to analyze the refutational methods of Ashʿarite against postmodern atheism. This study employs a qualitative, descriptive-analytical approach to key texts of Western thought and the discourse of Islamic kalām. The findings reveal that Ashʿarite kalām possesses strong and consistent foundations of argumentation through the principles of ʿillah wa maʿlūl (cause and effect), ibṭāl al-dawr (invalidation of circularity), ibṭāl al-tasalsul (invalidation of infinite regress), and dalīl al-niẓām (argument from design), supported by scriptural evidence. The study contributes to contemporary theological discourse by constructing a systematic Ashʿarite kalām methodological framework through the integration of these four arguments as mechanisms for responding to philosophical nihilism and scientific atheism. This framework demonstrates the capacity of classical kalām methods to address contemporary philosophical and scientific challenges.
This article analyzes the significance of Islamic studies in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by positioning Indonesia as the world's largest Muslim-majority society and one of the most dynamic digital ecosystems globally, as a strategic analytical site. The discussion is constructed within the framework of Islamic philosophy of knowledge to reassess the position and orientation of Islamic Studies amid the accelerating transformation of digital technology. Contrary to narratives that regard the decline of the social sciences and humanities as inevitable in the digital era, this article argues that Islamic studies is not experiencing an inherent decline, rather, it is confronting demands for epistemic and methodological renewal. Employing a qualitative-conceptual approach through ontological, epistemological and axiological analyses, this article formulates a conceptualization of digital Islamic studies as a paradigm of scholarly renewal within a digitally literate society, particularly among Generation Z as digital natives. Ontologically, digital Islamic studies interpret digital space as an arena for articulating religiosity and forming new religious authority. Epistemologically, it seeks to integrate the Islamic scholarly tradition with digital technology as a medium for the transmission and production of knowledge, without abandoning the normative foundations of revelation. Axiologically, digital Islamic studies are directed toward reaffirming the ethical vision of Islam and the maq & amacr;sid al-shar & imacr;'ah in responding to humanitarian crises, psychological anxieties, and spiritual alienation, and the challenges posed by artificial intelligence.
Abstract During the era of manuscript writing in the Malay Archipelago from the 16th to the 19th century, various texts were produced by Malay scholars. This is evidenced by the discovery of various Malay manuscripts in all aspects of knowledge. Among the unique features of the works produced, particularly the manuscripts in sastera kitab genre, the writings that are based on values and aim to instil good manners (adab) to the readers. The production of works like this is extensive, not only in prose form but also in other forms, such as poetry, syair (traditional Malay poetry), and nazam (a type of poetic recitation). Therefore, this article will discuss the implementation of values and manners in one of the Malay-Islamic manuscripts from the National Library of Malaysia's collection, MSS 4291(A), entitled Taḥdhīr al-Walad. This manuscript is written in the form of poetry that contains explanations about the core values and manners that should be instilled in students and society. It is written using the Arabic language and accompanied by interlinear translations to facilitate understanding for new students and readers. This article applied manuscript studies methods, including codicological analysis to examine the physical aspects and historical background of the manuscript, as well as philological analysis to transliterate the text from Arabic and Jawi script to Roman script. Content analysis is then used to explore the key values and the application of manners in the poetic text of Taḥdhīr al-Walad. Through the study of the manuscript and textual analysis, the aim is to highlight the values and manners embodied in Malay-Islamic manuscripts, specifically in the form of poetry and syair, and to make these values accessible and applicable to contemporary society.
Abstract Jadhr al-Aṣam (Liar Paradox) is not a foreign issue among Islamic scholars, particularly the mutakallimūn and manāṭiqah of the past, who examined this paradox in depth, not only by exploring its formulations and implications but also by proposing solutions and evaluating their impact on the discourse of kalām and logic. One such scholar, Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad al-Khafrī, a logician and polymath, addressed this centuries-old paradox in his writings. His rejection of the solutions proposed by Jalāl al-Dīn al-Dawwānī warrants further investigation to derive insights from both thinkers, particularly for developing a new framework for understanding logic (manṭiq) and critical thinking in the Malaysian context. This study aims to identify al-Dawwānī’s proposed solutions, summarise al-Khafrī’s critiques, and analyse the arguments presented by both scholars. It also includes a translation and brief analysis of Risālah ʿIbrah al-Fuḍalāʾ fī Ḥall Shubhah Jadhr al-Aṣam by Shams al-Dīn al-Khafrī. In this treatise, al-Khafrī questions the ontological status of Jadhr al-Aṣam, examines the nature of self-referential statements, and asserts that the paradox remains a khabar (declarative statement) rather than an inshāʾ (performative utterance). The methodology employed involves collecting data and conducting content analysis of the relevant classical texts.
Abstract This paper examines the issue of Muslim visits to non-Muslim places of worship within the context of Malaysia’s pluralistic society. While the academic discipline of Comparative Religion plays a significant role in promoting interfaith understanding, the implementation of such visits must be carefully scrutinized from various angles, including Islamic creed (ʿaqīdah), religious study, jurisprudence (fiqh), legal considerations and local cultural sensitivities. The paper underscores the importance of applying the principle of sadd al-dharā’iʿ (blocking the means to potential harm) to avoid doctrinal confusion and the risk of tashabbuh (imitation of non-Islamic religious rituals), especially when the visits involve members of the public or students who may lack adequate guidance. In this regard, the presence of qualified experts in ʿaqīdah, fiqh, and Comparative Religion is essential to ensure that Islamic legal boundaries are respected and that the intended message of harmony is conveyed accurately. Furthermore, the paper proposes clear guidelines for visits to churches, Hindu temples, Buddhist and Taoist temples and gurdwaras, as a preliminary step towards more cautious and structured implementation. It concludes by urging state religious authorities to take proactive measures by initiating dialogues with relevant stakeholders to develop a comprehensive framework that preserves the integrity of Islamic belief while fostering interfaith understanding and coexistence in Malaysia.
Abstract The Islamic thinker Malek Bennabi (1905–1973) proposed a comprehensive civilizational project for the Islamic Ummah, aiming to halt its decline, revive its vitality, and elevate it from its setbacks, ultimately paving the way for its renaissance and reestablishing its position among advanced nations. A key pillar of this project was the concept of the effective civilizational individual, with Bennabi emphasising education, self-reform, and moral development as essential paths to cultivating such individuals. To complete his vision, Bennabi underscored the importance of the spiritual factor in both the genesis and sustainability of civilisations, considering it a foundational element alongside the intellectual factor. He observed that the spiritual factor had unified the desert Arabs and forged the cohesion of the Islamic Ummah. In contrast, the decline of this spiritual dimension was, in his view, a significant cause of the Ummah’s stagnation and regression. However, despite his strong emphasis on the spiritual factor within the collective civilizational framework, Bennabi did not devote equal attention to the spiritual development of the individual. Accordingly, this study seeks to illuminate the role of the spiritual factor in Bennabi’s civilizational thought, investigate the reasons for his limited focus on the individual’s spiritual reformation, and explore the foundational concepts and methodologies for addressing this dimension.
This article examines the concept of religious tolerance through Qur'anic exegesis, applying the insider-outsider framework introduced by Kim Knott. The study is prompted by a social fact that has generated public controversy and gone viral, namely the request by Elia Myron, a Christian, to Indonesia's Ministry of Religious Affairs to conduct a reexamination of the interpretation of Surah al-A'raf [7]:157. Employing a qualitative research design, the study uses content analysis grounded in the insider-outsider approach to evaluate the discourse and responses arising from the issue. The findings indicate that applying the insider-outsider perspective to Elia Myron's open letter to the Ministry of Religious Affairs, which calls for a review of Qur'anic exegesis, has the potential to provoke tensions and deepen divisions among religious communities in Indonesia. From an outsider's standpoint, Elia's action is widely supported and perceived as a manifestation of tolerance by the majority of Christians, as the request specifically emphasizes revisiting the exegesis of Surah al-A'raf [7]:157, which includes references to the Torah and the Bible. However, from the insider standpoint, the action is interpreted as encroaching too deeply on Islamic teachings and is therefore seen as neglecting a key indicator within the discourse of religious moderation, namely tolerance, as underscored by Indonesia's Ministry of Religious Affairs. In addition, several social media posts related to Elia's request to review the Qur'anic exegesis are found to have explicitly served as early triggers for discourse containing intolerant elements, thereby potentially undermining harmonious relations among religious communities, particularly between Muslims and Christians.
Religious coping is an important dimension of psychological adjustment, particularly in Muslim populations where faith is central to managing stress. The Brief Religious Coping Scale (Brief RCOPE) is widely used to assess positive (PRC) and negative (NRC) religious coping; however, a validated Malay-language version has not been available. The study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the Malay Brief RCOPE (Brief RCOPE-M) among Muslim students in a Foundation in Islamic Studies program at a Malaysian public university. A total of 144 Malay Muslim students (mean age = 18.56 +/- 0.50, 72.9% female) participated. The Brief RCOPE underwent forward-backward translation and cultural review. Exploratory factor analysis (principal axis factoring, oblimin rotation) examined factor structure. Reliability was assessed with Cronbach's alpha, and convergent validity was evaluated through correlations with the Malay versions of the Duke University Religion Index (DUREL-M), Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI-M), and Brief Resilience Scale (BRS-M). Findings supported a two-factor solution consistent with PRC and NRC, with eigenvalues > 1, explaining 61% of the variance. Internal consistency was high (PRC alpha = 0.93; NRC alpha = 0.82). PRC was positively correlated to religiosity and resilience, while NRC was positively correlated to burnout and negatively to resilience, supporting convergent and concurrent validity. PRC and NRC were weakly correlated (r = - 0.12), suggesting relative independence. No gender differences between male and female students for PRC and NRC. Overall, the Brief RCOPE-M demonstrated sound psychometric properties and provides a reliable and valid instrument for assessing religious coping among Malay-speaking Muslim populations in Malaysia. Future studies should apply confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and cultural validation to ensure a robust and contextually appropriate instrument.
The discourse on the soul is an important topic in Islamic psychology, particularly in the works of alKindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, and Fakhr alDin al-Razi. This theme raises two major issues: the concept of soul resuscitation and happiness in the hereafter. Understanding these principles is vital for forming an individual's thoughts, judgments, and behavioral habits. Materialistic inclinations in modern civilization have given rise to a range of moral issues, including selfishness, dishonesty, envy, and a hedonistic culture that prioritizes worldly wealth and pleasure over moral and spiritual ideals. Thus, this article highlights these two issues, as defined by the Ghazali, using a qualitative method based on content analysis of their works to assess the continuity of their perspectives on the subject. The study finds a regarding the resurrection of the soul in the afterlife: Ibn Sina holds that only the soul is resurrected, whereas al-Ghazali maintains that both the soul and the body are resurrected. Nonetheless, both concur that the utmost felicity of the soul in the afterlife is attained through intellectual or spiritual delight, which arises when the intellect's potential is realized by acquiring real knowledge, thereby fostering piety and cultivating noble character. This aligns with the Islamic psychospiritual framework, which emphasises faith in Allah SWT and the Hereafter as the basis for spiritual purification; worship as a means of strengthening one's relationship with God and guiding the intellect toward its proper use; and character (akhlaq) as the manifestation of spiritual intelligence derived from knowledge that leads to piety.
In 1938, Samuel P. Huntington notoriously argued that "the great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural," a thesis that has since fuelled misconceptions about the inherent incompatibility of civilizations based on religious, ethnic, and racial differences. This perspective has particularly negatively impacted views of Islam when he added that "the crescent-shaped Islamic bloc, from the bulge of Africa to central Asia, has bloody borders." Using a qualitative, library-based research approach, this article explores the contemporary challenges of religious tensions in Malaysia. It investigates whether meaningful interreligious coexistence is viable in a multireligious country. These challenges, including prejudice and stereotyping, can be addressed through a comprehensive understanding of socioreligious harmony in Islamic perspectives that can be formulated by engaging with the commonalities perspective of religion, the principle of human brotherhood, the value of mutual tolerance (tasamuh), the role of dialogue and peaceful coexistence (fiqh al-ta'ayush). Practical methods for implementing these values include interfaith education, community engagement, inclusive policymaking, and dialogue platforms that resonate with local cultural contexts. Together, these elements contribute to an integrated framework of harmonious socioreligious relations.
This study examines the epistemological foundations and methodological conditions for establishing Occidentalism as a systematic scientific discipline, with the West as its primary subject of research. Focusing on contemporary Islamic thought, it addresses how the Islamic mind can critically engage with Orientalist discourse and construct knowledge about the West. Using analytical, inductive, and critical methods, the study identifies the need to move Occidentalism from mere accumulation of knowledge to a structured science guided by a clear epistemological vision. Key recommendations include distinguishing between the study of the West and the science of Occidentalism, defining its subject and scope, overcoming epistemological obstacles, and integrating insights from both Western and Islamic scholarship to organize and classify its topics systematically.
The first principle of the creed of Ahli Sunnah wa alJama'ah is affirmation of the meaning of reality and knowledge. This affirmation of the meaning of reality and knowledge is discussed at the beginning of Usul al-Din by Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi, who represents the Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah tradition, stating that the meaning of reality and knowledge of things can be firmly established. However, Muslim liberal thinkers Soroush, and Zainah Anwar present differing conceptions towards affirmation of meaning. Their views are influenced by postmodernist thought that upholds epistemic doubt (scepticism), truth as limited by individual perspective (subjectivism), and the rejection of absolute truth (relativism). This study demonstrates that the affirmation of meaning is indispensable within Islamic epistemology. The absence of such affirmation would fail the cognition of the knower, thereby preventing it from constituting valid knowledge.
The perception of atheism as a Western concept faces new challenges as it emerges more visibly in Malaysia's Malay Muslim-majority society, creating notable socio-cultural impacts. This research examines how online platforms catalyse deconversion, shape atheist worldviews, and reconfigure theological discourse. Using a qualitative case-study design, the researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with six self-identified Malay atheist millennials recruited through purposive snowball sampling, complemented by document analysis and digital ethnography of social media discourse; pseudonyms, encrypted storage and informed consent were used to safeguard anonymity Participants frequently linked their religious disengagement to family dynamics, social pressures, negative experiences with religious institutions, gendered enforcement and digitally mediated exposure to sceptical communities and content. Participants articulated their views in ways that demonstrate rational scepticism and support intellectual freedom. In contrast, participants perceive state and religious institutions as focusing on containment rather than engagement, thereby failing to address root causes. Overall, the research offers a novelty in linking Malay-Muslim socio-legal constraints with digital-mediated atheist identity formation and in specifying the 'aqidah-level implications of "digital doubt" for how certainty, doubt and religious knowledge are justified in contemporary Malaysia.
