Background: Caffeine’s ergogenic effects on cognitive function are well-established, but the potential confounding influence of withdrawal is less understood. This study examined the effects of caffeine withdrawal and withdrawal reversal on mood and cognitive performance in habitual caffeine consumers. Methods: Twenty-five (12 males) participants completed this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. During three separate visits, participants completed one of three experimental conditions: (a) placebo (PLA; 5 mg*kg− 1 maltodextrin), (b) 5 mg*kg− 1 caffeine anhydrous (CAF5mg), or (c) normal dose (ND) based on self-reported caffeine consumption habits. Reaction time and sequence recall tasks (Sport React, Croatia) were assessed at four timepoints: arrival, pre-ingestion, 30 min post-ingestion, and before departure, each performed three times. Participants performed a bench press session (warm-up and three sets to failure at 80
Executive functions (EFs) predict school readiness and academic achievement in young children. Cognitively enhanced physical activity (CEPA), defined as physical activity (PA) combined with concurrent cognitive tasks, may substantially enhance EFs in preschool-aged children. Given that EFs are crucial for children’s intellectual development and later achievements in life, we sought to systematically review the literature on the effects of CEPA on EFs in preschool children following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Web of Science, PubMed and APA PsycINFO were systematically searched from inception to June 2024 for the relevant literature using predetermined keywords. Only randomized controlled trials that had performed CEPA in healthy preschool children and evaluated EFs were included. Quality appraisal of the included studies was assessed via Cochrane RoB2 tool. Eight studies comprised of 838 participants met the inclusion criteria and were analysed. The most consistent improvements in EFs were found in exergaming studies, which fostered CEPA through interactive video games adjusted for preschool children. The meta-analysis revealed that CEPA programs led to significantly better EFs outcomes in children than control conditions, with longer program durations yielding the greatest improvements. Future research should compare the effect sizes of CEPA, standard PA, and isolated cognitive training in preschool populations.
This study examined whether expectation violations modulate the effectiveness of directed forgetting (DF) and whether this interaction varies with emotional valence. We hypothesised that unexpectedness may confer mnemonic resilience, protecting from later forgetting. Participants first learned symbol–stimulus contingencies (rule learning), followed by an encoding phase with new emotional and neutral stimuli that were either expected or violated the learned rule. Each stimulus was accompanied by a “remember” or “forget” cue, and a subsequent recognition test assessed memory performance for expected and unexpected items under both DF conditions. Unexpected stimuli were remembered better than expected ones, particularly through recollection, and this advantage persisted even under forget instructions, indicating resistance to DF. Forget cues reduced recollection overall, but this reduction was markedly stronger for expected than for unexpected items. Emotional valence partly moderated these effects with the expectation advantage for recollection being evident for negative and neutral stimuli but not for positive ones. Nevertheless, the weakening of the DF effect for unexpected stimuli occurred irrespective of emotional valence. These findings demonstrate that prediction error enhances memory formation and diminishes the efficacy of intentional forgetting, particularly for associatively richer, recollection-based memories. The results support a view of DF as a dynamic process constrained by encoding factors such as surprise and emotional salience, with implications for theories of memory control and applications in education and memory training.
Training of both domain-general and domain-specific skills has shown potential to benefit the acquisition of children’s math skills. In particular, training working memory and numerical knowledge have both shown to improve math performance in kindergarteners. However, it is unclear whether engaging in both, domain-general and domain-specific training would lead to greater learning outcomes as compared with completing only one type of training. Using regression and latent linear growth modeling, we analyzed a combined dataset from three studies involving 468 diverse kindergarteners to determine the relative benefits of three types of cognitive interventions – targeting working memory only, numerical knowledge only, or working memory followed by numerical knowledge training - to improve math and working memory skills in the short- and long run. In addition, we tested the extent to which the improvements are related to individual differences at baseline, and whether and how those individual differences might interact with training type. Overall, our results indicated that the additive training that targeted both, working memory and numerical knowledge, led to the most pronounced long-term gains in math compared to the other treatments. Furthermore, participants with relatively higher initial math skills tended to show the most substantial long-term gains in both working memory and math skills from the additive training. In contrast, for those with lower initial math skills, single domain training seemed to be the most effective approach. In sum, our data highlight the importance of taking into account individual strengths and needs when designing and implementing an intervention to promote math learning in early childhood.
Transfer of learning involves acquiring knowledge in one task and reusing it in a new task. In the current study we used the Tower of Hanoi problem to test the hypotheses that problem-solving transfer by children includes a transition phase and that specific training reduces the decrease in performance during this phase. In a pretest-posttest-transfer design, 6- to 7-year-old children solved two digital versions of the Tower of Hanoi, with participants divided between three conditions: specific-training (experimental group), non-specific training (active control group), and no-training (passive control group). Results showed a positive effect of training in the main task. All participants showed a decrease in performance at transfer, but those who had received specific training performed better than their peers on the two transfer trials, showing that the benefit of specific training remains despite the transfer decrease. The discussion considers our results in relation to the theoretical impacts of similarities between tasks and between contexts and examines the role of strategy training in transition phases. Children’s performances decrease temporarily during learning transfer between isomorphic digital versions of the Tower of Hanoi. Specific training in strategy reduces the decrease in performance during transfer. The decrease during transfer is followed by a rebound in performance. Non-specific training has a delayed benefit on transfer performance .
Stroke patients experience cognitive impairments affecting daily activities, necessitating effective rehabilitation methods. This study aimed to (1) assess the feasibility and effectiveness of short-term visual memory and selective attention training in an immersive virtual reality environment and (2) examine near and far transfer effects post-training. Twenty-seven stroke survivors were allocated to one of the two groups (Immersive virtual reality – iVR, and Control) and the pre-assessment was completed. Both groups participated in the conventional rehabilitation program. Additionally, the iVR group underwent 10 sessions of short-term visual memory and selective attention training in the iVR environment. After the intervention (or after 2 weeks for the control group) the post-assessment was completed. Cognitive functions were tested by the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination-III and Trail Making Test Part A and B, Medical College of Georgia Complex Figures. The final data analysis included 20 participants (mean age – 62,15 ± 7,8), seven of them did not complete the post-assessment. The results indicated that iVR group (N = 13) showed a significant improvement in short-term visual memory retrieval time, whereas no statistically significant near- or far-transfer effects were observed. Anxiety and depression levels decreased similarly in both groups. In contrast, the control group (N = 7) improved only non-dominant hand psychomotor functions. These findings demonstrate that short-term visual memory and selective attention training tasks, when integrated into an immersive virtual reality environment, may contribute to conventional rehabilitation. However, the present results provide no clear evidence of near- or far-transfer effects following iVR training.
Completing cognitive training alongside physical activity may be an effective and efficient way to improve cognitive performance. To inform ongoing randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the efficacy of physical and cognitive training, intervention fidelity and participant experience should be considered. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive account of the interventions and participant experiences within a concurrent physical and cognitive training RCT. In total, 107 healthy active young adults were recruited for a 12-week investigator-blinded RCT. Participants were assigned to one of three intervention groups: (1) concurrent physical and cognitive training, (2) separate physical and cognitive training, or (3) physical-only training. Measures of physical and perceived load including power output, cadence, exertion, enjoyment, and task load, were collected in weeks 3, 7, and 10 of the intervention. Cognitive training volume and load were collected for the concurrent and separate groups over the duration of the intervention. Measures of intervention acceptability included withdrawal rates and end-of-intervention participant feedback. Participant attendance at training sessions was high (concurrent: 92 ± 7
Previous research indicates interval stair climbing can provide an easily accessible time-efficient means to boost cognitive performance and mood, effects that could in theory be underpinned by exercise-induced hemodynamic changes in the brain. To test this, we ran a randomized controlled crossover trial investigating cognitive, mood, and hemodynamic effects of interval stair climbing (measured 20 min post-exercise, after applying the brain recording equipment), and probed for evidence that neuropsychological benefits might be mediated by hemodynamic effects. Forty-eight undergraduates (M = 20.63 years, SD = 3.45, range = 18–36) attended two sessions separated by 7 days, with session order randomized and counterbalanced across participants. For the stair-climbing session, participants completed an interval-exercise protocol that required < 17 min and included six fairly intensive 1-min stair-climbing intervals, before completing a neuropsychological battery, which included three cognitive tests and six visual analogue mood scales, while we recorded hemodynamic changes using near-infrared spectroscopy positioned on the forehead. The control session differed only by the omission of the stair climbing protocol. Relative to the control session, following the stair climbing participants exhibited better cognitive performance (indicated by faster correct response latencies in all three tests); however, no significant hemodynamic effects emerged and we found no evidence of relationships between the hemodynamic and cognitive measures. In addition, we found virtually no evidence of mood benefits 25 min post-exercise, which contrasts with the mood benefits reported when assessed more immediately. These findings suggest that the cognitive benefits following interval stair-climbing are more enduring than mood and hemodynamic benefits and reflect other mechanisms, at least when assessed after a delay. TRN: ACTRN12622000434796, Date of registration: 17/03/2022.
Participating in satisfying leisure activities is associated with better cognition, while those who do not engage in such activities are at higher risk for cognitive decline. However, little attention has been given to the specific group of non-participants, particularly in terms of how satisfaction or dissatisfaction with not participating is associated with their cognition. Moreover, the cognitive benefits of alternative social roles for this group, such as providing grandchild care, remain unknown. This study aims to assess the association between satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the lack of participation in leisure activities and cognitive function and explore how grandchild care moderates this relationship. We analysed data from 8,109 Europeans aged 50 + from the ninth wave of the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). Linear Mixed-Effects Models show that being satisfied with the lack of participation in leisure activities and providing grandchild care are independently associated with better cognitive function. As the frequency of grandchild care increases, cognition improves for both satisfied and dissatisfied non-participants, but this improvement is more pronounced for those who are satisfied. Specifically, cognition scores are highest among satisfied non-participants who provide near-daily grandchild care and lowest among dissatisfied non-participants who do not engage in grandchild care. Our findings emphasize the role of satisfaction and alternative social roles in supporting cognitive health, providing insights for public policy and future research.
This study aimed to investigate the developmental trajectories and reciprocal relationship between social activities and cognition in middle-aged and elderly people with chronic diseases after controlling for the differences among individuals. The study used a representative sample of adults older than 45 years from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). The parallel latent growth curve models (LGCMs) were used to investigate the developmental trajectories and interactions between social activities and cognitive function from a dynamic perspective. The random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) were conducted to examine the longitudinal bidirectional relationship between social activities and cognitive function. There were 4,174 over the age of 45 chronic disease patients with the mean age of 57.10 ± 7.57 years. The parallel LGCMs demonstrated that the rate of change in social activities positively predicted the rate of change in cognitive function (β (95
Working memory is widely recognized as a core component of cognition, yet the efficacy of its training interventions remains a subject of debate. In this article, we begin by reviewing prominent models of working memory and highlighting key theoretical tensions and ambiguities. We then introduce a new framework distinguishing between two modes of cognitive activity: online processing mode, which involves real-time, high-demand coordination of information under temporal and social pressure, and offline processing mode, which is self-paced and unfolds naturally without such pressure. We argue that working memory capacity is best understood as the ability to manage information in the online processing mode. Building on this perspective, we reviewed existing training paradigms and proposed real-time speech organization activities such as formal speaking, live explanation, and structured oral argumentation, as an ecologically valid alternative to previous training paradigms. Because these tasks require sustained real-time information processing in time-sensitive, dynamic, content-varying, and socially salient settings, they offer a promising and ecologically grounded approach to strengthening core cognitive functions. We conclude by offering a theoretical rationale for this approach and outlining implications for future research and intervention.
Cognitive training can help improve cognition and build cognitive reserve in seniors, but the extent to which cognitive training leads to improvement in untrained tasks, the so called transfer effect, is still debated, and age-related difference in this matter remain understudied. This study investigated the effect of two executive function training tasks, the dual-task and the n-back task, on their analogous untrained tasks in 35 younger adults and 49 older adults. Performance was assessed before and after each group had completed 6 h of their respective training program spread over four weeks. Results show improvement in the dual-task transfer task after dual-task training in both younger and older adults, and that dual-task performances also improved after n-back training but only in older adults. Improvement in performance on the n-back transfer task was also observed after both trainings for the moderate task load (2-back), while for the higher load (3-back) the improvement was only observed in the n-back training group, with equivalent training effects in older and younger adults. These results suggest that executive function training can lead to near transfer to a non-trained task tapping the same attentional control process, in addition to showing age-related difference in transfer effect across tasks. This suggests that, while performing executive control tasks, older adults may engage different attentional control processes from the one targeted by the task. Indeed, improvement in dual-task performance after n-back training in older adults implies that improved working memory capacity can help older adults to better manage dual-task situations.
Traditional mindfulness programs positively impact physical and mental health but often fail to meet the needs of our fast-paced society, whether offered online or in person. Mobile applications enable independent practice but provide limited support. A self-directed approach may enhance self-efficacy and improve outcomes. This study compares a self-directed four-week mindfulness training with specific background information on mindfulness training effects, tips to integrating mindfulness in everyday life, and guidance for training (experimental group; EG) to an online freely available mindfulness program (active control group; ACG) in terms of perceived stress, well-being, and mindfulness. In an online study, participants were pseudo-randomly assigned to either the EG or the ACG and completed the Perceived Stress Scale, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale, and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire short form at three measurement times (T0, T1, T2). 107 participants completed baseline (T0), 93 participants finished T1, and 83 participants completed the whole study (T2). Using an imputed dataset (N = 107 at T0, T1, and T2), we conducted mixed ANOVAs and found significant main effects of time on mindfulness and perceived stress, but not on well-being. Post-hoc analysis revealed significant improvements in both EG and ACG in perceived stress and mindfulness from T0 to T1 and T2. No between-group differences and no significant training x time interaction were found. Given the absence of differences between groups, these findings provide initial evidence that this novel self-directed mindfulness program may offer a flexible yet sufficiently supportive option for users.
Whether exposure to a novel environment in virtual reality improves subsequent verbal memory or not is still debated. The present study aims to replicate positive findings by assessing whether exploration of a novel virtual environment leads to better memory recall in a task performed afterwards than exploration of a familiar environment and whether this effect is related to the exploratory behavior. Fifty-five participants completed three sessions that took place on different days. The first session consisted of assessing the baseline memory performance. Participants encoded a list of 40 words and then freely recalled as many words as possible during two memory tests—one conducted immediately after a 30-second distraction task, and the other after a 24-hour delay. In the second session, participants familiarized themselves with a virtual environment and then explored either the familiar or a novel environment before performing a similar memory task. In the third, participants explored the familiar or novel virtual environment (counterbalancing design) before performing the memory task. Our results failed to find a positive impact of exploring a novel environment (spatial novelty) on memory. Rather, we observed that immediate recall is higher after exploring a virtual environment (regardless of it being novel or familiar) compared to the baseline performance. The experience of virtual reality might induce another type of novelty, called distinct novelty, which could impact memory too. Furthermore, our results, derived from a sample of individuals aged 18 to 30, suggest a negative correlation between age and the novelty effect, highlighting the need for further research into individual differences. Surprisingly, delayed recall after 24 h was higher at baseline than after exploring a virtual environment.
Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death in the United States, and its prevalence is projected to affect nearly half of adults by 2050. Beyond its physical impact, poor cardiovascular health has been linked to changes in brain function, including alterations in neuroelectric activity measured by event-related potentials (ERPs). Increased arterial stiffness has been associated with reduced cognition, though the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. This study examined the relationship between arterial stiffness and inhibitory control, focusing on attentional and response inhibitory processes. 66 adults (39.4 ± 17.0 years) participated in this cross-sectional study. Arterial stiffness was assessed via carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV; 6.41 ± 1.24 m/s). Inhibitory control was measured using the Eriksen flanker and Go/NoGo task paradigms, with neuroelectric activity indexed by the P300 and N200 ERP components. Stepwise linear regression models controlled for age, sex, education, and body fat percentage. Although cfPWV was not related to behavioral performance (accuracy or reaction time), higher cfPWV was associated with delayed P3 peak latency during the incongruent flanker condition (β = 0.04, R² = 0.25, p = 0.004). These findings suggest that greater arterial stiffness is linked to slower neural processing during attentionally demanding tasks, highlighting a potential pathway by which vascular health indices influence cognitive function.
The aim of this study was to investigate whether participation in rugby or padel is associated with differences in cognitive functioning, specifically in processing speed, attention, and executive functions. Sixty-four participants were divided into rugby athletes, padel athletes, and non-athletes. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Digit Symbol-Coding and Symbol Search subtests of the WAIS-III (Processing Speed Index) and the Trail Making Test (Parts A and B). Significant group differences emerged in processing speed and executive functions, while no significant differences were found in attention. Rugby athletes showed significantly lower performance in these domains than padel athletes, performing similarly to non-athletes. In contrast, padel athletes significantly outperformed non-athletes in processing speed, suggesting an association between padel practice and enhanced cognitive performance. These findings are consistent with a possible association between participation in padel and higher cognitive performance, particularly processing speed, although causal inferences cannot be drawn from this small cross-sectional study. Further research is needed to clarify the cognitive correlates of padel as the sport gains popularity.
Ginseng has a longstanding reputation as an adaptogen, antistress agent and cognitive enhancer. We conducted a systematic review of randomised controlled studies into the cognitive effects of ginseng in non-clinical populations. The initial search captured 1802 records, of which fourteen articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. The majority of the studies (N = 11) examined the effects of standardized extracts of Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng), with most (N = 8) using a standardised extract. The other three used a standardised extract of Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng). All but one study included acute assessment ranging from 1 h to 6 h post-administration. Four studies included a ‘chronic’ assessment ranging from 8 days to 12 weeks, three of which included ‘acute-on-chronic’ evaluations. Overall, the effects of P. ginseng tended to benefit accuracy of secondary memory (although there was evidence of a speed accuracy trade-off for specific doses), and to some degree attentional processes. P. quinquefolius had a more positive impact on attentional measures and working memory/executive functions. These effects are likely due to differences in ginsenoside profiles and other components via action on numerous systems, including neurotransmitter systems and glucocorticoid and estrogen receptors. Although there were some methodological consistencies across studies, different cognitive measures and extracts were utilised. Notably, the studies which did not specify the ginsenoside constituents of the extract used did not report cognitive benefits, emphasising the need for standardisation and characterisation.
While working memory training (WMT) has demonstrated promise in mitigating cognitive decline among older adults, its efficacy in addressing age-related challenges in emotion regulation—specifically through cognitive reappraisal (CR)—remains underexplored, particularly in older women. In this research, we conducted two studies to investigate (a) the age-moderated relationship between working memory (WM) updating and CR, and (b) whether WMT could enhance CR in this demographic. In Study I, we assessed WM through a numerical updating task and a 1-back task, as well as CR through an emotion regulation task, involving 101 young women (aged 18–30) and 114 older women (aged 65–85). Study II included 69 older women (aged 65–85), who were randomly assigned to a Training group (n = 22), an Active Control group (n = 22), or a No-contact control group (n = 25), with the Training group completing 20 sessions of adaptive training. Results from Study I indicated that young women outperformed older women on both WM and CR tasks, and age significantly moderated their relationship; a positive WM-CR correlation was identified exclusively in young women. In Study II, only the training group demonstrated significant post-intervention improvements in both WM updating and CR performance compared to the control groups. We conclude that WMT can effectively enhance WM and, crucially, improve CR abilities in older women, thereby positioning it as a viable intervention for age-related emotional dysregulation.
This study evaluated whether the expectation of cognitive improvement due to short-session practice with action games could affect visuospatial attention. All the 140 participants underwent a pre- and post-testing, or just a post-testing, of the Useful Field of View (UFoV) task in a single experimental session. Prior to the post-test, Placebo Group 1 watched a video inducing expectation of game-related effects on cognition, while Control Group 1 watched a control video, both followed by a 10-minute session of a virtual reality action video game. Placebo Group 2 and Control Group 2 underwent the same procedures, except for the pre-test (i.e., Solomon four-group experimental design). Although experimental manipulation induced expectation in Placebo Group 1 compared to Control Group 1, there were no differences of performance in the UFoV task. A comparison of Placebo Group 2 and Control Group 2 assessed an expectancy effect in the absence of a pre-test, and the results showed that the manipulation did not induce expectation, which was not observed in performance as well. A comparison among all experimental conditions in the post-test evidenced a carry-over effect caused by practice and suggests that performance in the placebo group may be benefited or intensified by a pre-testing. In summary, our results do not support previous investigations in the literature claiming that an expectancy effect may account for attentional gains in cognitive training studies.
To evaluate the effects of a 12-week combined cognitive and multicomponent physical exercise training program on global cognitive performance (primary outcome) and on biological (biochemical), psychological, and social secondary outcomes in healthy older adults. The study included healthy older adults aged 50–80 years, recruited from the community. The participants were randomized into four intervention arms: cognitive training and physical exercise group, cognitive training group, physical exercise group, and control group. We assessed the biopsychosocial aspects before and after 12 weeks of intervention. We analyzed 113 subjects. Participants from the cognitive training group showed an increase in global cognition (RI: 7.49, 95
