ABSTRACT Integrated AHP-EWM and HACCP framework for URIWS safety management, combining macro-level risk assessment, treatment process control, and water quality validation. In China, Urban and Rural Integrated Water Supply (URIWS) systems are confronted with challenges arising from diverse water sources, expanded service coverage, and complex management arrangements. This study develops and validates an integrated safety risk management framework that combines macro level risk assessment with micro level process control. The combined Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)–Entropy Weighting Method (EWM) indicates that water source risk (0.365) and treatment risk (0.256) constitute the primary safety risks within the system. Meanwhile, relatively high weights are associated with the compliance rate of raw water quality, water supply reliability, facility operational integrity, and emergency management capacity. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is applied to micro level process control at plant A. The results indicate that the effluent turbidity of the high efficiency sedimentation tank is reduced to within the range of 0.98–1.25 NTU, while the aluminum concentration in finished water is stably controlled at 0.06–0.08 mg/L. In addition, the residual chlorine concentration reaches 0.49–0.64 mg/L, corresponding to critical limit rates of 75, 100, and 85%, respectively. This model effectively bridges risk identification and control, offering a systematic approach for water safety management.
ABSTRACT Schematic summarizing the review of nanocomposite ceramic membranes for water purification, highlighting coupled removal mechanisms (AOP, photocatalysis, electrochemistry, enhanced filtration) and scale-up barriers such as leaching, fouling, and cost. Nanocomposite ceramic membranes are being developed to extend ceramic membrane separation from mainly size-based retention toward combined filtration, adsorption, and reactive transformation. The micropollutants are usually present at trace concentrations but may cause ecological and human health concerns. Conventional low-pressure ceramic microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes are generally unable to remove many dissolved micropollutants by size exclusion alone. Incorporating nanomaterials into ceramic membranes can introduce additional functions, such as surface adsorption, catalytic oxidation, photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, antimicrobial activity, and fouling mitigation. However, translation from laboratory studies to practical water-treatment systems remains constrained by nanoparticle aggregation, weak interfacial bonding, material leaching, uncertain transformation-product toxicity, membrane fouling in complex water matrices, high fabrication costs, and limited long-term pilot-scale data. This review summarizes recent progress in nanocomposite ceramic membranes for water purification, with emphasis on modification strategies, coupled with removal mechanisms, structure–performance relationships, and scale-up constraints. The review also discusses bioinspired membrane design, artificial intelligence-assisted optimization, and life cycle assessment as tools for addressing durability, process control, and sustainability challenges. By linking pollutant characteristics, ceramic membrane structure, nanomaterial functionality, and engineering limitations, this review aims to provide a more application-oriented framework for the design and evaluation of nanocomposite ceramic membranes.
ABSTRACT Wastewater resource management decisions are still made without a consistent method for considering social, environmental, and financial costs. Current frameworks cover some aspects of sustainability, yet none offer standardised, reproducible monetisation of social impacts. This loophole continues to produce inequitable outcomes and limits accountability for decisions regarding infrastructure investments. This critical review introduces a new conceptual framework of the integrated social-hydrological assessment model (ISHAM), combining the social life cycle costing (S-LCC) model with the hydrological model and economic analysis. The ISHAM framework consists of four interlinked modules: social impact assessment, hydrological modelling, economic and environmental analysis, and policy and decision-making interface. This review found that S-LCC can enhance the potential for more equitable decision-making by integrating it into wastewater resource management. The standardised monetisation architecture of ISHAM is more differentiated than current frameworks and offers a reproducible foundation for wastewater governance through social accountability. This review closes a methodological gap that has been found in more recent syntheses of the field and offers a systematic roadmap to researchers, practitioners, and policymakers towards the goal of social inclusion in wastewater management.
ABSTRACT Schematic overview divided into two sections. Left panel illustrates fabrication strategies for chlorine-resistant membranes: monomer replacement, bulk doping, surface coating, and chemical grafting. Right panel illustrates repair strategies for chlorine-damaged membranes: chemical reductive regeneration, external and embedded defect sealing, and reversible sacrificial layer regeneration. With the escalating global freshwater scarcity, reverse osmosis (RO) membranes have become the most widely adopted technology for seawater desalination. However, aromatic polyamide RO membranes are highly sensitive to active chlorine, and chlorine disinfection induces irreversible membrane degradation, severely restricting long-term stable operation. As chlorine disinfection remains irreplaceable in RO pretreatment, enhancing polyamide chlorine resistance and extending membrane lifespan are critical to cost reduction. This review adopts a full-lifecycle perspective to establish a framework from proactive resistance enhancement to post-damage repair. Fabrication strategies are classified into monomer replacement, bulk doping, surface coating, and chemical grafting, comparing their chlorine resistance, mechanisms, and engineering feasibility. For damaged commercial membranes, four restoration approaches-chemical reductive regeneration, surface defect sealing, embedded responsive self-healing, and reversible sacrificial-layer regeneration-are reviewed, delineating their applicable damage thresholds and limitations. Future directions targeting complex chlorine damage mechanisms and durable repair strategies are outlined, providing theoretical guidance for sustainable chlorine-resistant RO membrane deployment.
ABSTRACT Evapotranspiration (ET) plays a crucial role in the hydrological cycle and ecosystem processes. This study investigated the spatiotemporal variations and associated factors of ET in the Jialing River Basin during 2001–2023 using the PML-V2 ET dataset, Theil–Sen median trend analysis, Mann–Kendall test, partial correlation analysis, and ridge regression. Results showed that: (1) The mean annual ET was 547.94 mm, with a non-significant decreasing trend of −0.71 mm yr−1. Spatially, ET was higher in the southern and northwestern regions and lower in the central area, with 63.04% of the basin showing a decreasing trend. (2) Seasonal ET decreased in spring and summer but increased in autumn and winter, with the highest ET occurring in summer. (3) Partial correlation analysis revealed negative associations of ET with temperature and precipitation in most areas, while solar radiation and NDVI showed positive associations, with solar radiation exhibiting the most extensive positive association. (4) Ridge regression analysis revealed that temperature exhibited the highest relative contribution to annual ET variability (30.93%), followed by precipitation (25.59%), NDVI (25.19%), and solar radiation (18.30%). NDVI showed the highest seasonal contribution in spring, summer, and winter, whereas solar radiation had the highest contribution in autumn.
ABSTRACT Graphical abstract showing simultaneous millibubble air-water backwashing features. A chart compares residual deposits among three methods, while a schematic illustrates rising bubbles growing through the filter bed, creating wake turbulence and surface jet flow. Rapid sand filters require effective backwashing to maintain the cleanliness of filter media. This study investigated simultaneous air–water backwashing with millibubbles generated at a significantly reduced airflow rate (0.03 m3/(m2·min), approximately one-tenth the conventional rate). The performance of the proposed approach was compared with those of standard water-only and sequential air–water backwashing over 16 filtration–backwashing cycles. The millibubble-assisted air–water backwashing achieved higher suspended solid removal efficiency and lower cumulative residual deposits than the water-only backwashing, while demonstrating cleaning performance comparable to, or slightly higher than, that of conventional air–water backwashing. Bubble-induced hydrodynamic interactions enhance particle detachment, thereby mitigating mudball precursor formation. The low-airflow condition is expected to reduce the risk of media loss and bed disturbance, which is particularly desired in pressure filters where direct observation is restricted. These findings demonstrate a stable cleaning strategy for sustainable water treatment.
Timely monitoring of surface water is essential for water management in arid and semi-arid re gions. This study evaluates freely available Landsat imagery processed in Google Earth Engine to monitor water extent across f ive major Algerian reservoirs. Satellite-derived surface areas were compared with in-situ measurements from the National Ag ency for Dams and Transfers (ANBT), obtained from topographic and bathymetric surveys. Results show strong agreement bet ween satellite-derived and in-situ water surface areas, with correlation coefficients exceeding 0.97. Normalized errors, calcula ted relative to the normal reservoir surface area, remained low, with MAE ranging from 4.97% to 7.68% and RMSE from 5.70% to 8.37%. Linear regression models of the form Y = aX were developed for each reservoir, with slopes ranging from 1.0643 to 1.1093. These models enable reconstruction of historical surface areas and estimation of missing in-situ observations, especially before 2001. For ungauged reservoirs, the average slope provides a practical predictive equation. Leave-one-year-out cross-vali dation confirmed model robustness, while residual analyses showed no systematic bias. Overall, the approach provides a scalab le, cost-effective framework for operational reservoir monitoring, supporting near-real-time assessment, drought management, and long-term evaluation of reservoir dynamics under climate change, and facilitating evidence-based decisions for reservoir o peration, planning, and regional strategic water security.
Customer-side leakage, a component of background leakage in water distribution systems, is commonly characterized through inlet flow signal decomposition and mitigated through pressure management. However, decomposition-based methods often lack physical grounding, and the direct identification and spatial localization of such subtle leakages remain insufficiently explored. This study proposes an integrated framework that combines signal decomposition with controlled field testing to enable precise detection of customer-side leakage within district metered areas. High-resolution smart meter data support refined hydraulic simulation and flow signal analysis. Controlled discharge experiments are conducted to induce representative leakage conditions, from which characteristic leakage signatures can be extracted from inlet flow series using variational mode decomposition with experimental support. The decomposed components are compared with consumption signals from all individual household meters via dynamic time warping to quantify similarity and locate leakage sources. The proposed framework is applied to a real district metered area in Danzhou, China, where minor customer-side leakages at household meter connections are successfully identified and verified through field inspection. The results demonstrate that integrating data-driven mode decomposition with experimental calibration provides a robust and transferable approach for proactive customer-side leakage management. [GRAPHICS]
ABSTRACT It first shows the main sources of lithium deposits, and then illustrates a forward osmosis (FO) membrane process for lithium recovery. The rapid expansion of the lithium economy, driven by increasing demand for batteries and renewable energy storage, has established lithium as a critical resource in modern technologies. This growing reliance highlights the urgent need for sustainable separation systems to meet future supply demands. This study presents the advantages of forward osmosis (FO) membranes for lithium extraction, examining key factors influencing their performance and recent advances in membrane design, material development, and operational strategies. The performance of FO membranes is critically evaluated, with emphasis on the mechanisms governing selective Li+ separation from competing ions in complex feed solutions. Various membrane modification approaches, including functional polymers, nanomaterials, and optimized draw solutions, are discussed in relation to their influence on water flux, ion selectivity, and overall separation efficiency. These strategies have demonstrated improvements in FO membrane performance for lithium recovery, although their effectiveness depends strongly on membrane structure, material properties, and operating conditions. Compared with nanofiltration, FO membranes can achieve comparable Li+/Mg2+; selectivity under significantly lower hydraulic pressures, offering notable energy-saving potential. This work also outlines current challenges and proposes future research directions toward achieving efficient, scalable, and environmentally sustainable FO-based lithium recovery systems.
Valve-induced water hammer remains a major concern in fluid systems because it can generate severe pressure surges and cause system damage. However, valve closure times and closure policies are often evaluated separately, which limits a deeper understanding of their combined effects. This study treats monotonic valve closure as a curve-design problem for water hammer control in a reservoir pipe valve system. Conventional one-stage, multistage linear, and classical power-law closures are compared with smooth monotonic spline closures, namely piecewise cubic Hermite interpolating polynomial and B & eacute;zier, together with a modified power law incorporating a timing parameter. The method of characteristics is applied under single-phase flow and cavitating flow conditions for different closure durations, initial velocities, and pipe configurations. The results show that closure policy ranking is not universal but depends on the hydraulic state. At lower initial velocities, one-stage linear closures can produce lower transient heads, whereas at higher velocities and shorter closure durations, smoother and more aggressive profiles like the B & eacute;zier splines become preferable. The gas-cavity cavitation framework showed marked sensitivity to closure policy in the transition from the wave-dominated regime to the valve-dominated regime, underscoring the need for system-dependent valve closure design.HIGHLIGHTSExtends the power-law closure with an added timing parameter. Introduces B & eacute;zier and PCHIP monotonic closures for water hammer control. Closure performance varies with initial velocity and closure duration. Policies are assessed under single-phase and cavitation flow conditions. B & eacute;zier closures give the most consistent head reduction.
This study examines how plateau-induced water scarcity shapes household reliance on informal water markets and generates water-quality risks in Abetifi, a high-elevation town on Ghana's Kwahu Plateau. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, survey data from 400 households were integrated with physicochemical and microbiological analyses of 60 water samples collected from source points and household storage. Findings reveal severe water scarcity, with households experiencing an average of 26.8 hours of daily supply interruption, travelling a mean distance of 642 m per collection trip, and spending up to 95 minutes per trip. Informal vendors serve as the primary water source for 44% of households and a secondary source for 37%, with 66% relying on them daily or weekly. Plateau-induced scarcity is strongly associated with informal market dependence (chi & sup2; = 18.64, p < 0.001). Water quality deteriorates during household storage, with turbidity increasing from 3.26 to 6.03 NTU and E. coli concentrations rising from 0.6 to 3.1 CFU/100 ml. High reliance on informal water markets is associated with elevated water-quality risk (chi & sup2; = 9.52, p = 0.009), while household size, educational attainment, and upper-plateau location further shape risk exposure (chi & sup2; = 10.87, p = 0.028). The findings highlight the need for terrain-sensitive and equity-oriented water governance.
A comprehensive review is conducted on the hydrodynamic process of urban flooding, ranging from interactions between ground runoff, pipe flow, river flow and sea. Coupled models representing these interactions are critical for effective urban flood management. This review addresses the research objectives, governing equations, simulation methods, case studies and performance evaluation of various coupled models. The literature analysis reveals that most coupled models are not fully developed, except for surface runoff and pipe flow coupling. These methods present distinct advantages and limitations in computational efficiency, experimental complexity and practical applicability. In case studies, approximately half of the applications quantify the error metrics of water level or flooding range and perform well over tens or hundreds of square kilometers. In addition, current challenges, including coupled model complexity, monitoring data scarcity and high-quality experimental gap, were discussed, which demonstrates the limitations of refined flooding simulation. Correspondingly, three recommended directions for the future development of hydrodynamic coupled models are proposed.
Supply diversification through desalination is widely promoted as a climate adaptation strategy in semi-arid regions; however, whether diversification improves overall system performance beyond increasing production capacity remains insufficiently assessed. This study evaluates the urban water supply system of Maghnia (northwestern Algeria) during pre-diversification (2006-2010) and post-diversification (2011-2023) phases. Structural break detection, substitution analysis, supply-demand diagnostics, and reliability-vulnerability-resilience metrics were applied to annual production and demand data. Total potable water production increased by 155%, rising from 5.44 to 13.89 million m & sup3;, while production variability declined substantially (CV: 0.320 to 0.144). Desalination contributed 28.64% of total production and showed a strong inverse relationship with surface water production (r = -0.85), consistent with compensatory operational dynamics. Despite improved volumetric stability, reliability declined from 1.00 to 0.31, vulnerability increased to 0.76 million m & sup3; per deficit year, and nine deficit years occurred after 2013. Production gains were partly redirected toward external withdrawals, tightening supply-demand margins. The findings indicate that diversification improved production stability but did not fully secure reliable supply under sustained demand growth and evolving allocation dynamics.
The graphical abstract shows the workflow detailed in the article. The data from the SISE-Eaux database are first retrieved as two separate files: a PLV file containing location, date and identification, and a RESULT file containing the analysed data. These files then undergo a preprocessing step consisting of reformatting, annual aggregation and data harmonisation. This unified database is then used to find correlations between analysed parameters, plot geochemical maps and perform non-parametric tests across a large number of parameters.Ensuring drinking-water quality is essential both for safe human consumption and for preserving water supply infrastructures. In France, distributed waters interact with a diverse materials, including metallic pipes, cement-based linings, asbestos-cement pipes, and polymeric networks, making the assessment of water aggressiveness particularly important. This study proposes a dedicated workflow for exploiting the nationwide SISE-Eaux regulatory database to analyse and visualise spatial patterns of drinking-water chemistry and aggressiveness across France. The approach combines data preprocessing, harmonisation of analytical fields, calculation of aggressiveness indices, annual aggregation at the municipality scale, and municipality-level spatial attribution. Using data from 2020 to 2022, the study examines the geographical distribution of major chemical parameters and four complementary aggressiveness indices: the Langelier Index, Ryznar Stability Index, Larson-Skold Index, and Basson Index. The results highlight regional contrasts in water chemistry, especially for calcium, hydrogenocarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and pH, in relation to geological context. They also show that the different indices do not provide identical classifications, confirming the value of a multi-indicator approach when interpreting water aggressiveness at the national scale. The proposed workflow should therefore be understood as a reproducible exploratory framework for supporting the large-scale interpretation of drinking-water chemistry and potential water-infrastructure interactions.HIGHLIGHTSNational-scale assessment of drinking water aggressiveness in distribution networks. Comparison of corrosion and scaling indices using operational monitoring data. Strong geological control on water chemistry and aggressiveness patterns. Identification of index discrepancies for highly mineralised waters. Decision-support approach for corrosion and scaling management in water networks.
The Graphical Abstract shows the scanned inner wall surface of a pipe and the statistics of the protrusion height in the upper part, while in the lower part displays the random model of inner wall and the simulated hydraulic performance.The hydraulic performance of water supply pipes deteriorates significantly due to inner wall corrosion associated with aging. This study investigated the spatial characteristics of corrosion patterns and their hydraulic impacts based on nine aged pipes, by integrating three-dimensional (3D) scanning, random field modeling, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. Inner wall morphology data were acquired via 3D scanning from nine segments of aged cast iron pipes retrieved from a city in northern China. Random field theory was applied to characterize the spatial variability of the scanned morphology. Subsequently, a random field model was developed to reconstruct inner wall profiles, which were then used in CFD simulations to evaluate the hydraulic performance of the corroded pipes. Results indicate that the inner wall morphology exhibits pronounced spatial anisotropy, with a significantly larger correlation length in the circumferential direction than in the axial direction. The heights of corrosion protrusions approximately follow a lognormal distribution. CFD simulations demonstrate that the hydraulic performance of the inner wall morphology reconstructed by the proposed random field model closely matches that of the originally scanned pipes. This confirms the model's effectiveness in statistically reproducing the hydraulic effects of inner wall roughness in aged pipes.HIGHLIGHTSA random inner-wall model for aged cast iron pipes was developed based on 3D laser scanning. Protrusion heights followed a lognormal distribution and exhibit pronounced spatial anisotropy. The random inner-wall model effectively reproduced hydraulic behavior.
Understanding the detachment process in small channels is essential for improving process-based erosion modelling. However, the reliability of rill parameters in the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model across slopes and soil textures remains insufficiently evaluated. This study hypothesizes that slope and texture control rill detachment thresholds and that model predictions may be biased under saturated conditions. Mini-flume experiments were conducted using sandy loam and clay loam soils under saturated conditions to isolate slope and soil texture effects. Four slope gradients (3, 5, 7, and 10%) were tested, and detachment parameters were derived from runoff and sediment data. Results showed erodibility (K-r) was higher in clay loam, while critical shear stress (tau(cr)) increased with slope in both soils. Slope exerted a statistically dominant control (K-r: F = 53.74; tau(cr): F = 41.77, p < 0.001), whereas soil texture played a secondary role. K-r decreased with slope (0.0199-0.0043 and 0.0639-0.0072 s m(-1)), while tau(cr) increased (0.56-0.86 Pa and 0.45-0.90 Pa). WEPP predictions showed reasonable agreement for sandy loam but lower accuracy for clay loam. Although based on controlled mini-flume experiments with repacked soils that do not fully represent natural hillslope conditions, the results help refine rill detachment parameters and erosion thresholds.
Household water consumption plays a big role in water demand and supply management. Water utilities have growing interest in insights into how water is used in different types of households at a microcomponent level. In this study, a random forest model was trained to detect household toilet flushing events using different types of input features. The water consumption data were collected in the southwest of the UK, and an online survey was conducted to obtain essential information on household water end-use characteristics. Two types of random forest-based models are developed with different input features: one is trained with physical features and the other is trained with flow rate time series features. The test F1-score of the model using physical features reaches 88.46%, which is higher than the F1-score of 85.62% achieved using time series input. As comparison, a gated recurrent unit model was also trained with time series data, which achieved an F1-score of 86.18%. Based on the detection results, toilet use profiles for the two household groups are generated, revealing different behaviors between two groups. Overall, the proposed model demonstrates promising detection accuracies and holds potential for application in supporting household water demand disaggregation and management. [GRAPHICS]
African freshwater systems are undergoing hydro-morphological changes due to climate-induced hydrological variability, rapid socio-economic transformation, expanding agriculture, and emerging pollutants (EPs). These interacting pressures threaten water security, ecosystem integrity, biodiversity conservation, and the sustainability of water, energy, and food systems. This study synthesizes water-governance challenges discussed during the 2025 RWG-CCEP-WEF Conference held in Lusaka, Zambia, involving participants from over 15 Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Using thematic coding, cognitive mapping, literature synthesis, and policy reflections within the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus framework, the analysis identified seven thematic clusters, five governance pillars, and four recurring systemic stressors: climate variability, EPs, institutional fragmentation, and ecosystem degradation. About 70% of discussions identified governance fragmentation and poor institutional coordination as major barriers to integrated WEF management, while over 60% emphasized inadequate pollution monitoring and limited integration of Nature-based Solutions (NbS). Governance structures strongly influenced Water-Energy, Water-Food, and Energy-Food interactions affecting climate adaptation, hydropower development, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), agricultural intensification, and basin-scale resource conflicts. The proposed WEF-Nexus governance framework highlights adaptive management, ecological-flow protection, pollution monitoring, cross-basin cooperation, and evidence-based policy integration as critical pathways for strengthening resilience and sustainability across SSA and other climate-vulnerable regions, in an ever-changing world.
Conceptual infographic illustrating the use of Delft3D numerical modelling to compare two coastal protection scenarios. The upper section shows a computer screen labeled "Delft3D" connected to two offshore breakwater configurations (Scenario 1 and Scenario 2), with colored arrows representing wave and current circulation patterns. A risk legend indicates swimmer hazard levels from low to high. The middle section highlights three evaluated parameters: wave heights, current velocities, and swimmer hazard. The lower section presents expected coastal outcomes, including reduced erosion, gradual beach stabilization, and maintained sediment continuity, illustrated with simplified beach profiles. Downward arrows indicate reductions in wave heights and current velocities, culminating in improved swimmer safety, represented by a swimmer icon with a green check mark.Coastal protection structures profoundly reshape nearshore hydrodynamics, yet their design rarely integrates shoreline stability with human safety. Along the Baltim coast (Nile Delta, Egypt), recent groin construction has triggered severe downdrift erosion exceeding 700 m, exposing critical infrastructure and amplifying coastal risk. Here, we develop a coupled hydro-safety optimization framework to identify breakwater configurations that simultaneously reduce erosion drivers and swimmer hazards. High-resolution Delft3D simulations are used to quantify wave transformation, current redistribution, and hazard rate (HR) under dominant northwest forcing (H-s = 1.8 m, T-p = 8 s). Across four engineering scenarios, structural geometry emerges as a primary control on coastal dynamics. A continuous emerged breakwater maximizes wave attenuation (0.01-0.09 m) but induces localized current intensification at structure edges. A submerged configuration minimizes central flow velocities (down to 0.05 m/s) while redistributing hydrodynamic energy downdrift. In contrast, segmented breakwaters provide the most balanced performance: reduced gap width yields uniform wave attenuation, moderates circulation, and eliminates moderate-risk zones across all observation points. These findings demonstrate that neglecting hydrodynamic hazard can shift, rather than resolve coastal risk, and establish a transferable multi-criteria design paradigm for resilient shoreline protection.
Water scarcity and sanitation challenges in Haiti can be addressed through treated wastewater reuse within a circular economy framework, thereby reducing freshwater demand and improving public health. However, the implementation of reuse initiatives depends largely on public acceptance. This study provides an empirical assessment of attitudes toward treated wastewater reuse in Delmas 32. A structured questionnaire (n = 42) was administered to evaluate water access, knowledge of wastewater, perceived risks, and willingness to reuse treated wastewater for potable and nonpotable purposes. Results showed that 93% of respondents experience water scarcity, reflecting severe deficiencies in urban water supply systems. Although 66.7% reported familiarity with wastewater, only 47.6% expressed willingness to use treated wastewater, indicating a clear gap between awareness and acceptance. Acceptance was considerably higher for nonpotable uses, including bathing (64.3%), laundering (57.1%), toilet flushing (>90%), and irrigation of ornamental plants (78.6%), whereas willingness to use treated wastewater for drinking (9.5%) and cooking (14.3%) was very limited. Health concerns, perceived toxicity, unpleasant odors, and emotional aversion emerged as primary barriers. These findings indicate that technical feasibility alone is insufficient in fragile institutional contexts; risk communication and trust-building are crucial for achieving socially acceptable wastewater reuse in Haiti.
