The carbon storage in coastal zones plays a crucial role in mitigating future climate change impacts but faces intense pressures from human activities, particularly in economically developed areas. Therefore, disentangling the complex natural and socioeconomic factors of carbon storage is essential for effective management. We used an economically developed coastal zone, the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea region in China, to assess the relative influence of natural and socioeconomic factors on carbon storage. Our results showed a substantial net loss of 67.74 Tg (13.07%) of terrestrial carbon over the 40-year period, primarily associated with rapid urbanization and aquaculture expansion at the expense of high-carbon-density farm land and forest land. The variations in nonsoil carbon pools (aboveground, belowground, and dead organic carbon) were primarily explained by natural variables, such as elevation and temperature. In contrast, the variance in the soil organic carbon pool was predominantly explained by socioeconomic variables, such as population density and per capita cultivated land area. These findings highlight the need for a dual management approach: (a) prioritizing the strict conservation of existing upland forests to secure biomass carbon and (b) integrating soil conservation directly into urban and agricultural policies (e.g., spatial planning and economic incentives) to protect the highly vulnerable soil organic carbon pool in human-dominated and economically developed coastal zones.
Precipitation concentration describes the uneven intra-annual distribution of rainfall and may regulate vegetation differently from total precipitation, yet its ecological effects remain poorly quantified in humid monsoon regions. Using multisource remote sensing and meteorological data for Guangdong Province from 2000 to 2022, we examined vegetation structural and functional responses to precipitation concentration through the precipitation concentration index (PCI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI), leaf area index (LAI), and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF). Sen’s slope, Mann–Kendall tests, and an eigenvector spatial filtering spatially varying coefficient(ESF-SVC) model were applied to characterize trends and spatially nonstationary climatic controls. The mean PCI was 13.72, indicating moderately concentrated annual rainfall; coastal areas had relatively uniform precipitation (PCI < 10), whereas inland areas showed stronger seasonality (PCI = 10 to 16). EVI, LAI, and SIF generally increased, but statistically significant declines occurred around the Pearl River and Rongjiang River estuaries. Monthly mean temperature, PCI, and solar radiation were the dominant controls, although their effects varied across precipitation gradients and ecosystem types. With increasing annual precipitation, the contribution of PCI weakened, while the negative effect of temperature strengthened and dominated within the 2,000- to 2,300-mm precipitation range. PCI contributed positively to LAI in forests (27.20%) and grasslands (32.62%), whereas SIF was more sensitive to combined temperature and radiation stress, highlighting differences between structural greenness and photosynthetic functioning. These results show that precipitation concentration influences vegetation through its interaction with thermal conditions, ecosystem characteristics, and human disturbance, and they support precipitation-gradient- and ecosystem-specific management strategies for humid monsoon landscapes.
Understanding the drift dynamics of fish eggs provides a useful basis for estimating early fish resource abundance, yet existing studies rarely account simultaneously for submerged vegetation, egg water hardening, and deposition–resuspension dynamics. We developed an Euler–Lagrange framework that couples a vegetated flow field with an egg random displacement model, an egg settling velocity model, and time-dependent egg water hardening to simulate grass carp egg transport in submerged vegetated channels. The model reproduced a 3-stage evolution of the suspension fraction, with an early decline, a subsequent recovery, and final stabilization. Ignoring the postfertilization decrease in settling velocity reduced the predicted steady suspension fraction by about 10%, whereas neglecting deposition and resuspension overestimated the centroid drift distance by about 116.8 m after 4 h. Within the investigated parameter range of a submergence ratio of 2.0 to 4.8 and a vegetation density of 0.012 to 0.084, higher vegetation density lowered suspension fraction and weakened sustained downstream transport, whereas larger submergence ratio increased suspension fraction, raised the minimum suspension level, and promoted longer centroid drift distance. These findings clarify how submerged vegetation regulates egg retention and transport and provide a basis for improving early-stage egg resource estimation and evaluating ecological sustainability in vegetated rivers.
To reveal the impacts of centralized photovoltaic expansion on habitat connectivity in high-altitude cold regions, this study takes the western Sichuan Plateau as a case study. By integrating the MaxEnt model, Markov-PLUS model, circuit theory, and graph-theory metrics, the ecological networks were constructed for 2016, 2023, and 2030 under the inertial development, ecological protection, and economic development scenarios. The results show that photovoltaic development and its supporting infrastructure have become important drivers of ecological network reorganization. From 2016 to 2023, the total area of ecological sources decreased from 6,482 to 2,793 km2, and high-quality sources became increasingly concentrated in high-altitude woodland and grassland. Meanwhile, ecological corridors declined from 58 to 46, and their total length decreased from 2,786 to 2,622 km, indicating reduced spatial redundancy and stronger dependence on remaining trunk corridors. Ecological barrier points and pinchpoints expanded and became clustered along river valleys, transportation corridors, and photovoltaic development zones. Under the ecological protection scenario in 2030, the extent of the high-resistance zone was effectively reduced while maintaining the scale of photovoltaic development, resulting in a higher closure and connectivity. In contrast, the inertial development and economic development scenarios exhibited more pronounced bottleneck effects and higher risks of potential network fragmentation. These findings suggest that optimized photovoltaic siting, ecological corridor reservation, and priority restoration of barrier points and pinchpoints are essential for mitigating connectivity loss and balancing renewable energy development with ecological security in alpine regions.
Accurate estimation of regional-scale ozone (O3) uptake flux is critical for assessing crop stress. Traditional Jarvis-type empirical models are limited in capturing canopy conductance dynamics governed by both environmental conditions and plant physiology. Focusing on the winter wheat region of the North China Plain (NCP), this study integrated sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) data from Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI into a photosynthesis model to retrieve canopy conductance (Gc_SIF) and dynamically estimate a SIF-based O3 uptake flux (POD0_SIF) during a 75-d window centered on flowering (44 d before to 30 d after). Jarvis-model-based POD0 (POD0_Jarvis) and AOT40 (accumulated exposure over a threshold of 40 parts per billion) were also calculated for comparison. The results showed good agreement between Gc_SIF and eddy covariance-based canopy conductance estimates (Gc_EC) at the site scale, with R2 values of 0.59 to 0.67 and 0.41 to 0.46 at the daily and hourly scales, respectively. Gc_SIF exhibited stronger spatiotemporal consistency with gross primary production than Jarvis-based stomatal conductance (gs_Jarvis). Spatially, high AOT40 levels were concentrated in the central and northern NCP, while high POD0_SIF and POD0_Jarvis occurred in the central and southern regions. POD0_SIF exhibited greater spatial heterogeneity than POD0_Jarvis, with coefficients of variation of 22.62% and 7.50%, respectively, and their difference (ΔPOD0) peaking in the western and northern NCP. Vapor pressure deficit (VPD) contributed 32.3% to ΔPOD0, indicating that the Jarvis model inadequately captures the nonlinear stomatal response to varying atmospheric moisture conditions. The POD0_SIF framework provides a physiologically constrained approach for regional-scale O3 stress assessment during critical growth stages of winter wheat.
Baseflow sustains streamflow during dry periods and provides hydrological support for low-flow conditions, but its monthly partitioning can vary with coupled hydroclimatic conditions in karst catchments. This study examined monthly baseflow index ( BFI ) dynamics in 8 gauged karst catchments in southern China during 2012 to 2019. Baseflow was separated from original daily discharge records using the Eckhardt recursive digital filter, and monthly BFI was checked against the Lyne–Hollick filter, an Eckhardt parameter-sensitivity grid, and a hydroclimatic coupling index ( HCI ) logistic shape sensitivity analysis. Relationships between BFI and precipitation ( P ), potential evapotranspiration ( PET ), temperature ( T ), soil moisture ( SM ), the humidity index ( HI ), and HCI were then evaluated. HCI is treated as a process-informed empirical descriptor of coupled supply–demand–wetness conditions, rather than as a strict water-balance equation. The logistic shape parameter was fixed at k = 10 before model evaluation; sensitivity checks with k = 5 and k = 15 produced highly correlated HCI series. Results show clear intra-annual BFI variability and catchment-dependent associations with hydroclimatic predictors. Adding HCI improved prediction in some catchments, whereas the Base predictor set or Base + HI performed as well or better in others, and model skill remained weak in the Erlangba and Leigongtan catchments. These findings indicate that the added value of HCI is conditional on catchment context. The results represent statistical linkages with baseflow-related low-flow support, not evidence for causal mechanisms or ecological endpoints.
Rapid urbanization and economic growth have exacerbated water stress in China, raising concerns over regional disparities and sustainable development. However, existing studies lack a multidimensional characterization of the magnitude, spatial distribution, and underlying determinants of water stress inequality. This study conducts a comprehensive assessment of water stress inequality and its decoupling from economic growth across 5 key Chinese urban agglomerations: the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH), Chengdu–Chongqing, and Middle Yangtze River regions. Results show declining consumption-based water stress in 4 regions but increasing in BTH over 2010–2020. The levels of inequality in BTH, Yangtze River Delta, and Pearl River Delta dropped by 43%, 32%, and 20% during this same period, whereas Chengdu–Chongqing and Middle Yangtze River experienced rising inequality. Disparities between core cities and non-core cities constitute the primary driver of overall inequality, with core cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Chengdu, and Wuhan continuing to shoulder excessive shares of regional water stress inequality. Furthermore, the majority of cities achieved strong decoupling between water stress alongside continued gross-domestic-product growth, underscoring the feasibility of resource-efficient urban expansion. These findings offer scientific guidance for the spatial prioritization of nature-based solutions, which can help achieve more equitable and efficient resource allocation.
Vegetation carbon sequestration capacity (VCSC) is essential for carbon neutrality, but systematic research on its spatiotemporal patterns and driving mechanisms across China’s moisture zones remains insufficient. Based on China’s VCSC datasets from 2001 to 2020, this study examined spatiotemporal variations and quantitatively assessed contributions of meteorological factors and human activities using the partial derivative method. The results revealed that the VCSC decreased along the moisture gradient, with the highest multiyear average in the humid zone (1,640.33 g/m2) and the lowest in the arid zone (617.04 g/m2), while its declining trend intensified substantially under high aridity stress. VCSC tended to increase across all zones, with the most pronounced increase occurring in the subarid zone (4.90 g/m2/a). The most prominent finding of this study was that human activities acted as the dominant driver of VCSC enhancement across all moisture zones, with their contribution rates decreasing along the moisture gradient from 76.20% in the subarid zone to 46.53% in the humid zone. In contrast, the driving contributions of meteorological factors displayed strong spatial heterogeneity: solar radiation had negative effects on VCSC changes in humid and subhumid regions, with contribution rates of −39.2% and −44.3%, respectively, whereas precipitation had positive effects in arid and subarid zones, with contribution rates of 23.8% and 16.6%, respectively. The innovation of this study lies in quantifying differential effects of driving factors along the moisture gradient. These findings improve understanding of the vegetation carbon cycle and support zonal ecological management and the restoration of vulnerable ecosystems.
Rapid urbanization in Eastern China has extensively degraded habitat quality (HQ), yet the nonlinear ecological thresholds associated with these structural declines remain largely unexplored. Coupling an InVEST–intPLUS workflow with a CatBoost–Shapley additive explanations framework, we reconstructed HQ dynamics (2000 to 2020) and simulated future trajectories (2030/2040) under 3 developmental scenarios. Historically, HQ declined systematically, with degradation heavily concentrated in the plain-coastal corridors (zones IV and V). Forward-looking simulations reveal a severe divergence: economic growth scenarios tend to entrench low-HQ belts by exacerbating urban sprawl, and ecological protection scenarios successfully stall and partially reverse degradation through structural boundary controls. To interpret these diverging outcomes, our machine-learning analysis extracted precise multidimensional ecological tipping points. We identified that elevated land surface temperature is associated with accelerated habitat decline beyond 21.36 °C. While vegetation (normalized difference vegetation index) acts as the primary buffer, its ecological return follows an S-shaped saturation curve plateauing near 0.53. Furthermore, anthropogenic pressures are associated with pronounced habitat fragmentation when land-use intensity and economic density exceed critical limits (integrated land-use intensity > 2.40 and ln(gross domestic product) > 6.63). These mathematically extracted thresholds provide region- and model-specific quantitative benchmarks for optimizing future urban expansion and nature-based solutions within Eastern China.
The equilibrium between the supply and demand of ecosystem services constitutes a vital foundation for sustainable development. However, current research on systematic ecological management based on ecosystem service supply and demand remains relatively scarce, particularly concerning the exploration of spatial spillover effects, thereby failing to support ecological management. Taking the Yangtze River Economic Belt as a case study, this research establishes a systematic framework comprising “supply–demand assessment–impact mechanisms–zoned management–decision support”. It investigates the spatiotemporal evolution, spatial spillover effects, and equilibrium pathways of 6 key ecosystem service supply–demand relationships between 2000 and 2020. Findings reveal: The supply of ecosystem services along the Yangtze River Economic Belt exhibits an overall upward trend, while demand fluctuates considerably. Both supply and demand follow a spatial pattern characterized by higher levels in the east and lower levels in the west. Correlation analysis reveals marked synergistic relationships among various ecosystem services, particularly between water yield and soil retention. Effect decomposition via a spatial Durbin model further reveals that spatial spillover effects account for an average of 86.5% of total effects. This underscores that ecological management must transcend localized approaches and fully consider the spatial spillover effects of ecosystem services. Finally, the study employs self-organizing mapping neural networks to delineate 4 management zones within the study area. It proposes pathways to achieve supply–demand equilibrium, including establishing cross-regional collaborative governance mechanisms and implementing differentiated ecological restoration and conservation strategies.
Centennial-scale records that disentangle climatic variability from anthropogenic disturbance remain limited for subtropical mangrove systems, constraining process-based understanding of soil–sediment dynamics and landscape evolution under coupled forcing. Here, we present a high-resolution multiproxy reconstruction integrating fossil pollen, sediment geochemistry, radiometric chronology, historical archives, and remote sensing to resolve 2 centuries of mangrove ecosystem change in the Zhangjiang Estuary, southeastern China. The results reveal distinct disturbance–recovery cycles characterized by declines in mangrove dominance, reduced soil organic carbon, lower C/N ratios, and increased bulk density during phases of intensified land-use modification, followed by recovery intervals marked by renewed mangrove expansion and enhanced carbon preservation. Chronological alignment with China’s successive Five-Year Plans suggests that hydrological engineering, land reclamation, and aquaculture development were associated with shifts in vegetation composition and sedimentary conditions preserved in the stratigraphic record. Remote sensing over the past 5 decades corroborates these trends, indicating a 5-fold increase in mangrove extent following conservation interventions since the 1990s. Across sites, consistent empirical stability thresholds emerge, with stable states associated with >40% mangrove pollen, soil organic carbon > 80 Mg C hm−2, and C/N ratios > 18, while disturbance phases are dominated by herbaceous taxa and reduced carbon storage. These findings highlight the close linkage between vegetation composition, sedimentary conditions, carbon preservation, and geomorphic stability while showing that structural recovery does not necessarily imply functional recovery. By linking sedimentary processes with governance cycles, this study provides a transferable framework for evaluating mangrove resilience and blue carbon dynamics under climate change and policy-driven restoration.
Ecosystem service flows link ecosystems to human well-being, with freshwater being a key provisioning service. Focusing on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau as Asian Water Tower, this study examines pathways of water supply service flow under dynamic supply–demand dynamics and their implications for ecological management. Current research often oversimplifies spatial processes, lacks multi-scale analysis, and overlooks factors such as beneficiary competition and opportunity costs in payment schemes. To address these gaps, we (a) evaluated freshwater supply, demand, and their relationships; (b) modeled service flows using an improved resistance surface and algorithms (D8-Dijkstra-MCR and 2SFCA) across multiple scales; and (c) refined payment for ecosystem services (PES) by integrating Jensen–Shannon divergence with opportunity costs and socioeconomic factors. Main findings reveal the following: (a) At finer spatial scales, the heterogeneity of supply and demand intensifies, generally following a gradient from high in the southeast to low in the northwest. (b) Service flow networks grow more complex with increasing resolution. (c) Flow volumes exhibit scale-dependent variation, highest in northwestern counties, concentrated around city clusters at the municipal scale, and spatially clustered in southeastern basins at the watershed level. (d) The service flow-based PES and the current watershed PES exhibit convergence in regional payment structures. This study underscores the need for multi-scale management and differentiated PES schemes to support regional sustainability.
The interactions between ecosystem service (ES) supply and demand constitute a fundamental component of the human–land system and are crucial for regional planning and management. However, existing studies have paid relatively limited attention to the spatial matching patterns and influencing factors of mismatches between ES supply and demand. Focusing on the Yellow River Basin, this study used the InVEST model, Spearman correlation analysis, the supply–demand ratio index (SDI), and bivariate spatial autocorrelation to investigate the spatiotemporal variations of 4 typical ESs and their matching patterns from 2000 to 2020. Based on the SDI results, SDI bundles were classified and their driving factors were analyzed. The results indicated that (a) ES supply and demand showed an upward trend, except for soil conservation (SC) demand. The supply/demand pairs were synergistic, with weak trade-offs in food production (FP) supply and SC demand in downstream areas. (b) The spatial distribution of SDI was heterogeneous, with imbalance zones mainly in the northern upstream, northwestern midstream, and downstream estuarine zones for water yield (WY), and in the downstream and midstream areas along the river for carbon storage (CS), where surplus zones for SC and FP were also observed. (c) Four SDI bundles were identified, and their natural and social drivers were examined. Finally, a differentiated zoning management strategy was proposed. The findings enhance the understanding of ES management and offer practical guidance for region-specific sustainability.
Rod surface elevation tables (RSETs) are effective tools for measuring changes in ground surface height, but these are not designed to withstand large changes in height (e.g., ±50 cm). After extreme changes in elevation due to erosion or accretion, RSET sites may be deemed unusable; however, this equipment usually can function indefinitely with in-situ modifications. Here, we provide a methodological description for in-situ modifications to RSETs that can be invaluable for long-term monitoring. In a sampling site with a high rate of surface elevation loss, longer pins can be inserted into the RSET arm to continue measurements. In a site with a high rate of accretion, RSETs buried in sediment can be raised by adding rod extensions, which is a particularly effective approach if the surface elevation can be measured before and after the attachment. Any modification to an RSET requires a reconceptualization of the original equations used to estimate change in the surface elevation, and these revised equations are described in this paper. We tested the measurement variability of the RSET before and after modification in West Dongting Lake, China. Results indicated that modification did not compromise data quality or precision and stability of RSET measurements. The reconceptualized equations incorporate offset adjustments that maintain datum consistency, enabling continuous data collection across pre- and postmodification phases with millimeter-scale precision. These RSET modifications can be used to extend the life of long-term RSET monitoring sites if the surface elevation has changed beyond the measurement capacity of the original RSET.
Nitrogen is essential for agricultural productivity and urban development, yet excessive emissions threaten sustainable development, particularly in urban agglomerations such as the Yangtze River Delta (YRD). Nitrogen is redistributed virtually through interregional trade, creating a mismatch between nitrogen emissions and economic benefits and thereby highlighting the need for more precise eco-compensation. However, current eco-compensation approaches often fail to capture the sectoral and regional heterogeneity in both pollution emissions and economic benefits. To address this gap, this study develops a city-level nitrogen-extended multiregional input–output model for 41 cities in the YRD to identify trade-driven total nitrogen (TN) transfer patterns and allocate eco-compensation responsibilities across regions and sectors. The results show that the YRD is a net exporter of embodied nitrogen in both domestic and international trade. Interregional TN transfers exhibit a unidirectional pattern, with Anhui and Jiangsu as production bases, Zhejiang as a transit hub, and Shanghai as the terminal consumer. At the city level, TN flows typically originate from agricultural cities, such as Xuzhou and Yancheng, and move toward processing centers such as Suzhou in Jiangsu. Ecological relationships embedded in TN flows are characterized predominantly by exploitative and competitive interactions, while mutualistic interactions are relatively scarce. The supply chain-based eco-compensation analysis further shows that the seemingly balanced responsibilities at the provincial level obscure substantial city-level heterogeneity, with agricultural nitrogen emissions driven mainly by intraprovincial food-processing demand. Overall, this study traces both embodied nitrogen emissions and monetary flows at the city level, providing a scientific basis for cross-regional and cross-sectoral eco-compensation.
Harmonizing the processes of urbanization, ecosystem service enhancement, and improvements in human well-being has emerged as a central challenge for achieving regional sustainable development. With the rapid advancement of information technology, the digital economy provides a novel impetus to attain sustainable development, although its underlying mechanisms require systematic validation. To address this gap, the present study focuses on 90 counties (cities and districts) within the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration (GPUA) in China 2014, 2018, and 2022. It analyzes the spatiotemporal dynamics of urbanization–ecosystem services–human well-being (U-ES-HWB) coupling coordination levels, with particular attention paid to the driving role and pathways of the digital economy. The key findings are as follows: Overall, the coupling coordination degree (CCD) of the U-ES-HWB system increased across the 3 observation years, transitioning from a state of mild imbalance to a fundamentally coordinated stage. Among driving forces, the digital economy demonstrated a markedly stronger positive effect on coupling coordination in core regions (0.6) compared to peripheral areas (0.4). Results from the partial least squares structural equation modeling indicate that the digital economy positively influences coupling coordination both directly and indirectly by simultaneously enhancing the quality of urbanization and the level of ecosystem services and human well-being. The results indicate that the digital economy has emerged as a pivotal engine in promoting the coordinated development of U-ES-HWB. Efforts should be tailored to local conditions to deepen the integration of the digital economy with ecological conservation, social welfare improvement, and regional coordinated development, thereby promoting sustainable development of urban agglomerations.
Human–monkey conflict (HMC) represents an increasing socioecological challenge in Nepal’s midhill regions, where agricultural systems and community-managed forests coexist within highly fragmented landscapes. This study reinterprets HMC as an emergent property of a coupled socioecological system shaped by the interaction of habitat degradation, altered resource availability, primate behavioral adaptation, and human land-use dynamics. Drawing on a structured narrative review and concept-mapping approach, we synthesize heterogeneous ecological, behavioral, and socioeconomic evidence into an integrated analytical framework. Findings indicate that current mitigation strategies, including deterrence, physical barriers, and population control interventions (currently at the pre-implementation phase) are largely reactive, labor-intensive, and insufficient to address the structural drivers of conflict. In particular, forest regeneration processes, while increasing overall tree cover, often fail to restore trophic functionality, contributing to a dual-resource system in which anthropogenic food sources remain highly attractive to primates. This dynamics is reinforced by behavioral plasticity, habituation, and social learning in monkey populations, leading to persistent and self-reinforcing conflict patterns. To address these limitations, the study proposes an integrated ecosystem approach (IEA) as a conceptual and operational framework for HMC mitigation. The IEA integrates ecological restoration, behavioral ecology, and governance mechanisms through coordinated interventions targeting habitat functionality, spatial configuration of resources, reduction of anthropogenic food subsidies, adaptive monitoring, and community-based management. By shifting the focus from symptom-oriented mitigation to the modification of the underlying ecological incentives, the IEA aims to provide a more sustainable and scalable pathway for conflict reduction. Although developed within the context of Nepal, the framework has broader applicability to other human–wildlife conflict systems, provided that interventions are adapted to local ecological, agricultural, and institutional conditions. The study contributes to advancing both the theoretical understanding and practical management of HMC by bridging the gap between socioecological systems theory and applied conservation strategies.
Ecosystem services (ESs) link ecological capacity with human demand and play a critical role in sustainable urban planning. However, limited attention has been paid to how ES supply–demand (ESSD) relationships vary across spatial scales and respond to nonlinear changes in key drivers. To address this gap, we integrated 7 ESs into a composite ESSD ratio across 4 spatial resolutions in Guilin, a rapidly urbanizing karst city in southern China. A multimethod framework integrating random forest modeling, Sobol global sensitivity analysis, probability density analysis, and partial dependence analysis were applied to identify dominant drivers and detect nonlinear thresholds. The results reveal pronounced spatial mismatches between ES supply and demand, with deficit hotspots concentrated in densely urbanized areas and surplus zones mainly located in mountainous ecological regions. Across scales, urban development intensity was consistently the dominant driver of composite ESSD ratio, followed by biomass and population density. Sensitivity analysis indicates that urban development exerts the strongest structural influence, while vegetation productivity plays an increasingly important role in maintaining ESSD balance at coarser spatial scales. Nonlinear response analysis further reveals scale-modulated thresholds for key drivers. Overall, ESSD dynamics were jointly shaped by ecological capacity and anthropogenic pressures, with their relative influence varying across scales. These findings provide scientific and quantitative support for scale-sensitive zoning, green infrastructure prioritization, and hierarchical ecological planning aimed at balancing urban development with ecological sustainability in rapidly urbanizing cities.
